Principles of Politics Applicable to All Governments

Benjamin Constant (author)
Nicholas Capaldi (introduction)
Dennis O’Keeffe (translator)
Etienne Hofmann (editor)

In Principles of Politics, Constant “explores many subjects: law, sovereignty, and representation; power and accountability; government, property and taxation; wealth and poverty; war, peace, and the maintenance of public order; and above all freedom, of the individual, of the press, and of religion… . Constant saw freedom as an organic phenomenon: to attack it in any particular way was to attack it generally.”

While Constant’s fluid, dynamic style and lofty eloquence do not always make for easy reading, his text forms a coherent whole, and in his translation Dennis O’Keeffe has focused on retaining the “general elegance and subtle rhetoric” of the original. This translation is based on Etienne Hofmann’s critical edition of Principes de politique (1980), complete with Constant’s additions to the original work.

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CONTENTS
Translator’s Note
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Principles of Politics
BOOK I: On Received Ideas About the Scope of Political Authority
chapter one: The Purpose of This Work
chapter two: Rousseau’s First Principle on the Origin of Political Authority
chapter three: Rousseau’s Second Principle on the Scope of Political Authority
chapter four: Rousseau’s Arguments for Boundless Political Authority
chapter five: That Rousseau’s Error Comes from His Wanting to Distinguish the Prerogatives of Society from Those of the Government
chapter six: The Consequences of Rousseau’s Theory
chapter seven: On Hobbes
chapter eight: Hobbes’s Opinion Reproduced
chapter nine: On the Inconsistency with Which Rousseau Has Been Reproached
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK II: On the Principles to Replace Received Ideas on the Extent of Political Authority
chapter one: On the Limitation of Political Authority
chapter two: On the Rights of the Majority
chapter three: On the Organization of Government When Political Authority Is Not Limited
chapter four: Objection to the Possibility of Limiting Political Authority
chapter five: On the Limits of Political Authority Restricted to a Minimum
chapter six: On Individual Rights When Political Authority Is Thus Restricted
chapter seven: On the Principle of Utility Substituted for the Idea of Individual Rights
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK III: On Arguments and Hypotheses in Favor of the Extension of Political Authority
chapter one: On the Extension of Political Authority beyond Its Necessary Minimum, on the Grounds of Utility
chapter two: On the Hypotheses without Which the Extension of Political Authority Is Illegitimate
chapter three: Are Governors Necessarily Less Liable to Error Than the Governed?
chapter four: Are Governmental Mistakes Less Dangerous Than Those of Individuals?
chapter five: On the Nature of the Means Political Authority Can Use on the Grounds of Utility
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK IV: On the Proliferation of the Laws
chapter one: Natural Causes of the Proliferation of the Laws
chapter two: The Idea Which Usually Develops about the Effects Which the Proliferation of the Laws Has and the Falsity of That Idea
chapter three: That the Principal Benefit Which Supporters of Democratic Government Are Looking for in the Proliferation of the Laws Does Not Exist
chapter four: On the Corruption Which the Proliferation of the Laws Causes among the Agents of the Government
chapter five: Another Drawback of the Proliferation of the Laws
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK V: On Arbitrary Measures
chapter one: On Arbitrary Measures and Why People Have Always Protested Less About Them Than about Attacks on Property
chapter two: On the Grounds for Arbitrary Measures and the Prerogative of Preventing Crimes
chapter three: Specious Argument in Support of Arbitrary Government
chapter four: On the Effect of Arbitrary Measures in Terms of Moral Life, Industry, and the Duration of Governments
chapter five: On the Influence of Arbitrary Rule on the Governors Themselves
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK VI: On Coups d’Etat
chapter one: On the Admiration for Coups d’Etat
chapter two: On Coups d’Etat in Countries with Written Constitutions
chapter three: The Condition Necessary to Stop Constitutional Violations
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK VII: On Freedom of Thought
chapter one: The Object of the Following Three Books
chapter two: On Freedom of Thought
chapter three: On the Expression of Thought
chapter four: Continuation of the Same Subject
chapter five: Continuation of the Same Subject
chapter six: Some Necessary Explication
chapter seven: Final Observations
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK VIII: On Religious Freedom
chapter one: Why Religion Was So Often Attacked by the Men of the Enlightenment
chapter two: On Civil Intolerance
chapter three: On the Proliferation of Sects5
chapter four: On the Maintenance of Religion by Government against the Spirit of Inquiry
chapter five: On the Reestablishment of Religion by Government
chapter six: On the Axiom That the People Must Have a Religion
chapter seven: On the Utilitarian Case for Religion
chapter eight: Another Effect of the Axiom That the People Must Have a Religion
chapter nine: On Tolerance When Government Gets Involved
chapter ten: On the Persecution of a Religious Belief
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK IX: On Legal Safeguards
chapter one: On the Independence of the Courts
chapter two: On the Abridgment of Due Process
chapter three: On Punishments
chapter four: On the Prerogative of Exercising Mercy
BOOK X: On the Action of Government with Regard to Property
chapter one: The Purpose of This Book
chapter two: The Natural Division of the Inhabitants of the Same Territory into Two Classes
chapter three: On Property
chapter four: On the Status Property Should Occupy in Political Institutions
chapter five: On Examples Drawn from Antiquity
chapter six: On the Proprietorial Spirit
chapter seven: That Territorial Property Alone Brings Together All the Advantages of Property
chapter eight: On Property in Public Funds
chapter nine: On the Amount of Landed Property Which Society Has the Right to Insist upon for the Exercise of Political Rights
chapter ten: That Owners Have No Interest in Abusing Power vis-à-vis Nonowners
chapter eleven: On Hereditary Privileges Compared to Property
chapter twelve: Necessary Comment
chapter thirteen: On the Best Way of Giving Proprietors a Large Political Influence
chapter fourteen: On the Action of Government on Property
chapter fifteen: On Laws Which Favor the Accumulation of Property in the Same Hands
chapter sixteen: On Laws Which Enforce the Wider Spreading of Property
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK XI: On Taxation
chapter one: The Object of This Book
chapter two: The First Right of the Governed with Regard to Taxation
chapter three: The Second Right of the Governed with Regard to Taxation
chapter four: On Various Types of Taxes
chapter five: How Taxation Becomes Contrary to Individual Rights
chapter six: That Taxes Bearing on Capital Are Contrary to Individual Rights
chapter seven: That the Interest of the State in Matters of Taxation Is Consistent with Individual Rights
chapter eight: An Incontestable Axiom
chapter nine: The Drawback of Excessive Taxation
chapter ten: A Further Drawback of Excessive Taxation
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK XII: On Government Jurisdiction over Economic Activity and Population
chapter one: Preliminary Observation
chapter two: On Legitimate Political Jurisdiction vis-à-vis Economic Activity
chapter three: That There Are Two Branches of Government Intervention with Regard to Economic Activity
chapter four: On Privileges and Prohibitions
chapter five: On the General Effect of Prohibitions
chapter six: On Things Which Push Governments in This Mistaken Direction
chapter seven: On the Supports Offered by Government
chapter eight: On the Equilibrium of Production
chapter nine: A Final Example of the Adverse Effects of Government Intervention
chapter ten: Conclusions from the Above Reflections
chapter eleven: On Government Measures in Relation to Population
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK XIII: On War
chapter one: From What Point of View War Can Be Considered As Having Advantages
chapter two: On the Pretexts for War
chapter three: The Effect of the Politics of War on the Domestic Condition of Nations
chapter four: On Safeguards against the War Mania of Governments
chapter five: On the Mode of Forming and Maintaining Armies
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK XIV: On Government Action on Enlightenment
chapter one: Questions to Be Dealt with in This Book
chapter two: On the Value Attributed to Errors
chapter three: On Government in Support of Truth
chapter four: On Government Protection of Enlightenment
chapter five: On the Upholding of Morality
chapter six: On the Contribution of Government to Education
chapter seven: On Government Duties vis-à-vis Enlightenment
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK XV: The Outcome of Preceding Discussion Relative to the Action of Government
chapter one: The Outcome of the Preceding Discussion
chapter two: On Three Pernicious Ideas
chapter three: On Ideas of Uniformity
chapter four: Application of This Principle to the Composition of Representative Assemblies
chapter five: Further Thoughts on the Preceding Chapter
chapter six: On Ideas of Stability
chapter seven: On Premature Ameliorations
chapter eight: On a False Way of Reasoning
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK XVI: On Political Authority in the Ancient World
chapter one: Why among the Ancients Political Authority Could Be More Extensive Than in Modern Times
chapter two: The First Difference between the Social State of the Ancients and That of Modern Times
chapter three: The Second Difference
chapter four: The Third Difference
chapter five: The Fourth Difference
chapter six: The Fifth Difference
chapter seven: The Result of These Differences between the Ancients and the Moderns
chapter eight: Modern Imitators of the Republics of Antiquity
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK XVII: On the True Principles of Freedom
chapter one: On the Inviolability of the True Principles of Freedom
chapter two: That the Circumscription of Political Authority, within Its Precise Limits, Does Not Tend to Weaken the Necessary Action of the Government
chapter three: Final Thoughts on Civil Freedom and Political Freedom3
chapter four: Apologia for Despotism by Louis XIV
CONSTANT’S NOTES
BOOK XVIII: On the Duties of Individuals to Political Authority
chapter one: Difficulties with Regard to the Question of Resistance
chapter two: On Obedience to the Law
chapter three: On Revolutions
chapter four: On the Duties of Enlightened Men during Revolutions
chapter five: Continuation of the Same Subject
chapter six: On the Duties of Enlightened Men after Violent Revolutions
CONSTANT’S NOTES
Additions to the Work Entitled Principles of Politics Applicable to All Governments
Book I:: Exposition of the Subject
Chapter 1:: The Purpose of the Work1
Notes Referring to the Original Chapter
Chapter 2:: Rousseau’s First Principle on the Origin of Political Authority
Notes
Chapter 3:: Rousseau’s Second Principle on the Scope of Political Authority
Notes
Chapter 4:: Rousseau’s Arguments for Boundless Political Authority
Notes
Chapter 6:: The Consequences of Rousseau’s Theory
Notes
Edition: Hofmann1980; Page: [520] Chapter 8:: Hobbes’s Opinion Reproduced
Notes
Chapter 9:: On the Inconsistency with Which Rousseau Has Been Reproached
Notes
Book II:: On the Principles to Replace Received Ideas on the Extent of Political Authority
Chapter 1:: On the Limitation of Political Authority
Notes
Chapter 2:: On the Rights of the Majority
Notes
Chapter 3:: On the Insignificance of the Way Government is Organized When Political Power Is Not Limited.
Note
Chapter 7:: On the Principle of Utility Substituted for the Idea of Individual Rights
Book III:: On Arguments and Hypotheses in Favor of the Extension of Political Authority
Chapter 1:: On the Extension of Political Authority beyond Its Necessary Minimum, on the Grounds of Utility
Notes
Chapter 3:: Are Governors Necessarily Less Liable to Error Than the Governed?
Notes
Chapter 4:: Are Governmental Mistakes Less Dangerous Than Those of Individuals?
Notes
Chapter 5:: On the Nature of the Means Political Authority Can Use on the Grounds of Utility
Notes
Book IV:: On the Proliferation of the Laws
Chapter 1:: Natural Causes of the Proliferation of the Laws
Chapter 2:: The Idea Which Usually Develops about the Effects Which the Proliferation of the Laws Has and the Falsity of That Idea
Chapter 3:: That the Principal Benefit Which Supporters of Democratic Government Are Looking for in the Proliferation of the Laws Does Not Exist
Chapter 4:: On the Corruption Which the Proliferation of the Laws Causes among the Agents of the Government
Chapter 5:: Another Drawback of the Proliferation of the Laws
Book V:: On Arbitrary Measures
Chapter 1:: On Arbitrary Measures and Why People Have Always Protested Less about Them Than about Attacks on Property
Chapter 2:: On the Grounds for Arbitrary Measures and the Prerogative of Preventing Crimes
Notes
Additions
Chapter 4:: On the Effect of Arbitrary Measures in Terms of Moral Life, Industry, and the Duration of Governments
Notes
Additions
Chapter 5:: On the Influence of Arbitrary Rule on the Governors Themselves
Book VI:: On Coups d’Etat
Chapter 1:: On the Admiration for Coups d’Etat
Notes
Book VII:: On Freedom of Thought
Chapter 2:: On Freedom of Thought
Notes
Chapter 3:: On the Expression of Thought
Notes
Chapter 4:: Continuation of the Same Subject
Notes
Chapter 5:: Continuation of the Same Subject
Notes
Addition
Book VIII:: On Religious Freedom
Chapter 1:: Why Religion Was So Often Attacked by the Men of the Enlightenment
Notes
Chapter 2:: On Civil Intolerance
Notes
Chapter 3:: On the Proliferation of Sects
Chapter 7:: On the Utilitarian Case for Religion
Chapter 8:: Another Effect of the Axiom That the People Must Have a Religion
Chapter 9:: On Tolerance when Government Gets Involved
Book IX:: On Legal Safeguards
Chapter 1:: On the Independence of the Courts
Notes
Chapter 3:: On Punishments
Notes
Additions
Book X:: On the Action of Government with Regard to Property
Chapter 4:: On the Status Property Should Occupy in Political Institutions
Notes
Chapter 5:: On Examples Drawn from Antiquity
Notes
Chapter 7:: That Territorial Property Alone Brings Together All the Advantages of Property
Notes
Chapter 8:: On Property in Public Funds
Additions
Chapter 9:: On the Amount of Landed Property Which Society Has the Right to Insist upon for the Exercise of Political Rights
Note
Chapter 10:: That Owners Have No Interest in Abusing Power vis-à-vis Nonowners
Notes
Chapter 15:: On Laws Which Favor the Accumulation of Property in the Same Hands
Notes
Chapter 16:: On Laws Which Enforce the Wider Spreading of Property
Notes
Chapter 17:: The Consequences of Attacks on Property by the Government69
Materials70
Chapter 18:: To Be Done. Conclusions from the Above Considerations
Materials
Book XI:: On Taxation
Chapter 4:: On Various Types of Taxes
Notes
Chapter 5:: How Taxation Becomes Contrary to Individual Rights
Notes
Chapter 6:: That Taxes Bearing on Capital Are Contrary to Individual Rights
Notes
Chapter 7:: That the Interest of the State in Matters of Taxation Is Consistent with Individual Rights
Notes
Edition: Hofmann1980; Page: [573] Chapter 8:: An Incontestable Axiom
Notes
Chapter 9:: The Drawback of Excessive Taxation
Notes
Chapter 10:: A Further Drawback of Excessive Taxation
Addition
Book XII:: On Government Jurisdiction over Economic Activity and Population
Chapter 1:: Preliminary Observation
Additions
Chapter 4:: On Privileges and Prohibitions
Notes
Additions
Chapter 5:: On the General Effect of Prohibitions
Notes
Additions
Chapter 6:: On Things Which Push Governments in This Mistaken Direction
Notes
Chapter 7:: On the Supports Offered by Government
Notes
Chapter 8:: On the Equilibrium of Production
Notes
Chapter 9:: Final Example(s) of the Adverse Effects of Government Intervention
Notes
Chapter 10:: Conclusions from the Above Reflectionsa
Addition
Chapter 11:: On Government Measures in Relation to Population
Notes
Book XIII:: On War
Chapter 1:: From What Point of View War Can Be Considered As Having Advantages
Notes
Addition
Chapter 5:: On the Mode of Forming and Maintaining Armies
Addition
Book XIV:: On Government Action on Enlightenment
Chapter 3:: On Government in Support of Truth
Notes
Additions
Chapter 4:: On Government Protection of Enlightenment
Notes
Additions
Chapter 5:: On the Upholding of Morality
Notes
Additions
Chapter 6:: On the Contribution of Government to Education
Notes
Additions
Book XV:: The Outcome of Preceding Discussion Relative to the Action of Government
Chapter 1:: The Outcome of the Preceding Discussion
Notes
Addition
Chapter 5:: Further Thoughts on the Preceding Chapter
Notes
Chapter 6:: On Ideas of Stability
Notes
Addition
Chapter 7:: On Premature Ameliorations
Additions
Chapter 8:: On a False Way of Reasoning
Additions
Book XVI:: On Political Authority in the Ancient World
Chapter 2:: The First Difference between the Social State of the Ancients and That of Modern Times
Notes
Chapter 4:: The Third Difference between the Ancients and the Moderns
Notes
Additions
Chapter 7:: The Result of These Differences between the Ancients and the Moderns
Notes
Additions
Chapter 8:: Modern Imitators of the Republics of Antiquity
Notes
Edition: Hofmann1980; Page: [620] Additions
Book XVII:: On the True Principles of Freedom
Chapter 1:: On the Inviolability of the True Principles of Freedom
Notes
Chapter 3:: Final Thoughts on Civil Freedom and Political Freedom
Notes
Additions
Chapter 4:: Apologia for Despotism by Louis XIV
Additions
Book XVIII:: On the Duties of Individuals to Political Authority
Chapter 1:: Difficulties with Regard to the Question of Resistance
Additions
Chapter 2:: On Obedience to the Law
Notes
Additions
Chapter 3:: On Revolutions
Notes
Additions
Chapter 4:: The Duties of Enlightened Men during Revolutions
Notes
Additions
Chapter 5:: Continuation of the Same Subject
Notes
Additions
Chapter 6:: On the Duties of Enlightened Men after Violent Revolutions
Notes
Addition
Note
Addition
A Few Additional Points
CONSTANT’S NOTES

Principles of Politics Applicable to All Governments

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Principles of Politics Applicable to All Governments

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Principles of Politics Applicable to All Governments

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