The Principles of Sociology, 3 vols. (1898)
- Herbert Spencer (author)
A foundational work in sociological theory that applies evolutionary principles to the study of human societies. Spencer argues that societies, like biological organisms, evolve from simple to complex structures through differentiation and integration. He examines key institutions such as the family, government, economy, and religion, emphasizing the role of voluntary cooperation over state control in social progress.
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In vol. 1 he defines his theory of sociology, how human beings associate with each other in communities, how institution evolve over time, and begins his analysis of institutions with a section on the family, marriage, women and children. In vol. 2 he covers “ceremonial” institutions and political institutions (with his famous distinction between militant and industrial types of society). In vol. 3 he discusses ecclesiastical institutions, professional institutions, and “industrial” (or economic) institutions.
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Critical Responses
Book
The Division of Labor in SocietyEmile Durkheim
Durkheim offers a contrasting view to Spencer, arguing that modern societies thrive on moral regulation and collective consciousness.
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Evolution and EthicsThomas H. Huxley
While Huxley admired Spencer’s evolutionary framework, he rejected the idea that social evolution was purely naturalistic, arguing that ethics should guide human progress, rather than just survival of the fittest.
Talcott Parsons
Parsons critiques Spencer’s overemphasis on individualism, arguing that social structures and cultural values play a more significant role in shaping societies than Spencer acknowledged.
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