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The Great Books Reading Group

Many people are interested in the so-called “Great Books” of Western civilization. The founder of Liberty Fund, Pierre Goodrich, was involved in the University of Chicago Great Books Program in the 1950s and drew up his own list of important authors. The names of these authors are inscribed on the limestone walls of the Goodrich Seminar Room in the Lilly Library at Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Indiana. We have a virtual representation of this here at the OLL.

Some colleges teach courses based upon a “Great Books” approach and other individuals are interested in reading some of these works on their own. This reading list has been drawn up with these people in mind and it contains a selection of 10 key books taken from the “North Wall” of the Goodrich Seminar Room covering the period 900-1800 A.D.

• 1. Rhazes, The Spiritual Physic

  Rhazes (ca. 865-923/32), a renowned alchemist, physician, and Muslim philosopher, lived and worked when the Abbasid Empire was at its height. During this era the empire was the focal point of learning in the known world, and Rhazes was the beneficiary of rulers committed to supporting science and medicine. Along with the Muslim intellectuals Averroes and Avicenna, Rhazes had a great influence on the West during the Middle Ages. Rhazes was well known in Europe, and Chaucer referred to him as one of the fifteen great sources of knowledge. Rhazes’ influence stemmed chiefly from his medical works, which were important source books for Western physicians until the rise of modern medicine in the nineteenth century. Rhazes’ most acclaimed work on human psychology and spirituality is The Spiritual Physic.

  See the entry about Rhazes in the Goodrich Seminar Room.

  Rhazes, The Spiritual Physic of Rhazes, trans. Arthur J. Arberry (London: John Murray, 1950).

  Accessed from oll.libertyfund.org/title/1791 on 2007-12-03

• 2. Saint Anselm, Proslogium

  Saint Anselm of Canterbury (b. 1033, Aosta, Lombardy; d. 1109, Canterbury, Kent) is generally considered to be the founder of the philosophical school of Scholasticism. He was a major figure in the intellectual life of the Middle Ages, and a major political and ecclesiastical force as well. As archbishop of Canterbury he was at the center of the lay investiture controversy in England. Saint Anselm spent the majority of his tenure as archbishop in opposition to William II (William Rufus, r. 1087-1100) and later Henry I (r. 1100-1135) because of his steadfast position on lay investiture. The reconciliation of the two positions at the Synod of Westminster (1107) was a basis for the Concordat of Worms (1122), which briefly settled the matter in Germany. Saint Anselm is not generally remembered for those accomplishments, however. He is instead revered for his contributions to philosophy and religious study. By coupling philosophy with his religious and scriptural investigations, he refined the discipline of theology. His examination of the nature and existence of God led to the formulation of the ontological proof, an often-cited example of his work:

  Hence, there is no doubt that there exists a being, than which nothing greater can be conceived, and it exists both in the understanding and in reality.

  This proof is based on the Platonistic idea of an absolutely perfect being and the very fact of the idea being itself a demonstration of existence. Despite his application of reason to matters of religion, Saint Anselm was not a believer in reason as the source of religious revelation. His theology bears the unmistakable marks of Saint Augustine in this regard.

  See the entry about Saint Anselm in the Goodrich Seminar Room.

  Saint Anselm, Proslogium; Monologium; An Appendix in Behalf of the Fool by Gaunilon; and Cur Deus Homo, translated from the latin by Sidney Norton Deane (Chicago: Open Court, 1903).

  Accessed from oll.libertyfund.org/title/1033 on 2007-12-03

• 3. Saint Francis of Assisi, Writings

  Saint Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) founded the Franciscan order and was an important participant in the religious revival of the late Middle Ages. He was born Francesco di Pietro di Bernardone in the duchy of Spoleto into the family of a prominent cloth merchant, and was fairly well educated for a youth of the upper middle class. As a young man he hungered after military adventure in the service of his prince and his church, and he was wounded in the war between Assisi and Perugia. After recovering, he was determined to enlist in the papal army of Count Gentile against Frederick II (1194-1250, H.R.E. 1220-1250) in Apulia, but changed his mind after experiencing a dream that appeared to be heaven-sent. He gave himself over to solitude and prayer so that he might determine the will of God, and while praying in a grotto near Assisi had a vision of Christ. Other visions followed quickly thereafter, and from these he determined that the Lord wanted him to be an example of Christian service and charity. It was the Gospel of Matthew that inspired the life of Saint Francis and the order he founded:

  Preach as you go, saying, `The Kingdom of God is at hand.’ … You received without paying, give without pay. Take no gold, nor silver, nor copper in your belts, no bag for your journey, nor two tunics, nor sandals, nor a staff; for the laborer deserves his food.

  See the entry about Saint Francis of Assisi in the Goodrich Seminar Room.

  Saint Francis of Assisi, The Writings of Saint Francis of Assisi, newly translated into English with an Introduction and Notes by Father Paschal Robinson (Philadelphia: The Dolphin Press, 1906).

  Accessed from oll.libertyfund.org/title/1172 on 2007-12-03

• 4. Magna Carta

  Magna Carta, or “great charter,” is the charter of English liberties granted by King John (r. 1199-1216) in 1215 and modified during the reign of Henry III (r. 1216-72) in 1216, 1217, and 1225. This document is the first systematic elaboration of the fundamental idea of rule by law, and one of the first examples in western Europe of an appeal to written law as opposed to custom. Magna Carta is the first modern statement of the idea that a ruler is bound by the rule of law. Many of the traditions and customs associated with Germanic kingship, which rulers often ignored, were positively established as law by Magna Carta. Germanic custom, for instance, called for a group of barons to advise the king, but Magna Carta ensured this process by binding the king and lords in an explicit and written contract.

  See the entry about Magna Carta in the Goodrich Seminar Room.

  William Sharp McKechnie, Magna Carta: A Commentary on the Great Charter of King John, with an Historical Introduction, by William Sharp McKechnie (Glasgow: Maclehose, 1914).

  Accessed from oll.libertyfund.org/title/338 on 2007-12-03

• 5. Francesco Petrarch, Sonnets

  Francesco Petrarca (b. July 20, 1304, Arezzo, Tuscany; d. July 18, 1374, Arqua, near Padua) was an Italian scholar and poet who is regarded by many scholars as being among the first humanists. He contributed to the Renaissance flowering of lyric poetry and literature through his poems addressed to Laura, his idealized beloved. Petrarch’s love of classical authors and learning inspired him to visit men of learning and search monastic libraries for classical texts. His discovery of several of Cicero’s letters encouraged the revival of the Ciceronian style that characterized Renaissance humanistic education.

  See the entry about Petrarch in the Goodrich Seminar Room.

  Francesco Petrarch, Some Love Songs of Petrarch, translated and annotated with a Biographical Introduction by William Dudley Foulke (Oxford University Press, 1915).

  Accessed from oll.libertyfund.org/title/1341 on 2007-12-03

• 6. Desiderius Erasmus, In Praise of Folly

  Desiderius Erasmus (1469-1536) was a Christian, humanist scholar; the first editor of the New Testament; a classicist; and a leading voice in the theological debates of the early Reformation in northern Europe. He contended with the reformer Martin Luther (1483-1546), emphasizing the importance of free will in human actions against Luther’s belief in the absolute bondage of the will to sin. In addition, Erasmus sought middle ground in the conflict between Luther and Pope Adrian VI (1522-1523) and tried to reconcile the two. In this work, the personification of Folly comes to earth to expose the follies, foibles, and failings of humans. It has been illustrated with 77 woodcuts by Hans Holbein.

  See the entry about Erasmus in the Goodrich Seminar Room.

  Desiderius Erasmus, Erasmus in Praise of Folly, illustrated with many curious cuts, designed, drawn, and etched by Hans Holbein, with portrait, life of Erasmus, and his epistle to Sir Thomas More (London: Reeves & Turner, 1876).

  Accessed from oll.libertyfund.org/title/551 on 2007-12-03

• 7. Martin Luther, Hymns

  Martin Luther (1483-1546), an Augustinian priest, biblical scholar, and linguist, was born and died in Eisleben, Saxony, a duchy in northwestern Germany. His attack on ecclesiastical abuses, the Ninety-five Theses, signaled the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. Like Saint Augustine, the founder of his order, Luther was racked by self-doubt and the uncertainty of his own salvation. Particularly troubling to him was the nature of divine justice. Luther’s reading of Augustine and Saint Paul led him to conclude that God’s justice lay in his punishment of sin. Further, his reading of the Gospels convinced him that God demanded more than outward obedience (conformity to the law); he also wanted love and inner purity, all this under pain of divine justice. In this scheme, however, God was more easily feared than loved, which seemed to be in conflict with the spirit of Christianity. Moreover, Luther was tormented with self-doubt about his own ability to fulfill God’s expectations. His participation in the rituals of the Catholic church did nothing to alleviate his anguish, and he came to believe that something was fundamentally wrong with the church as governed by Rome. The essence of Luther’s rebellion lay in his doctrine of justification by faith. He came to believe that faith was not the product of man’s fear of divine justice; rather, divine justice (justification) came through true faith, and salvation (divine grace) was the just reward for faith. Divine justice, then, was not related to punishment but was a positive, loving act. This view fit with Luther’s understanding of Christianity and became the essence of Reformation theology. Other reforms such as the number and significance of the sacraments and the role of the clergy sprang from Luther’s interpretation of the Bible.

  One of Luther’s best loved hymns Ein’ feste Burg ist unser Gott (A strong tower and refuge is our God):

  Ein’ feste Burg ist unser Gott, Ein’ gute Wehr und Waffen, Er hilft uns frei aus aller Noth, Die uns jetzt hat betroffen. Der alt’ böse Feind, Mit Ernst er’s jetzt meint: Gross Macht und viel List, Sein’ grausam Rüstung ist, Auf Erd’ ist nicht sein gleichen.

  Strong tower and refuge is our God, Right goodly shield and weapon; He helps us free in every need, That hath us now o’ertaken. The old evil foe, Means us deadly woe; Deep guile and great might Are his dread arms in fight; On earth is not his equal.

  Martin Luther, Dr. Martin Luther’s Deutsche Geistliche Lieder. The Hymns of Martin Luther set to their original Melodies with an English version, ed. Leonard Woolsey Bacon and Nathan H. Allen (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1884).

  Accessed from oll.libertyfund.org/title/754 on 2007-12-03

• 8. William Shakespeare, Macbeth

  William Shakespeare (1564-1616) is probably the best known poet and playwright of the English language. He is considered by many to be the greatest poet and dramatist of all time. The plays he wrote nearly four hundred years ago for a small theater in London are now performed in more countries and more often than those of any other playwright. His works can be divided into comedies, histories, and tragedies. In his tragedies, such as Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth, Shakespeare explored the depths of human existence, delving into issues of morality, character, and spirit. He was especially sensitive to the problems of individual responsibility in the exercise of power, underscoring the conflicting aspects of loyalty to family, friends, God, and country. These themes are particularly prevalent in his historical dramas such as Richard II and Henry V.

  See the entry about Shakespeare in the Goodrich Seminar Room.

  William Shakespeare, The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (The Oxford Shakespeare), ed. with a glossary by W.J. Craig M.A. (Oxford University Press, 1916).

  Accessed from oll.libertyfund.org/title/1647 on 2007-12-03

• 9. John Locke, The Two Treatises of Civil Government

  John Locke (b. 1632, Wrington, Somerset, England; d. 1704, Oates, Essex) is considered one of the first philosophers of the Enlightenment and the father of liberalism. Although it would not be correct to say that Locke favored democracy, he did advocate limits on the power of the sovereign, confining that person’s authority to the protection of the individual’s natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

  The majority of Locke’s liberal positions can be found in his extensive essay entitled The Two Treatises of Government (1689). The first treatise refutes the arguments in favor of the divine rights of kings propounded by Sir Robert Filmer (1588-1653) in his work, Patriarcha. It is the second treatise that contains the essentials of Locke’s political theory. Here the philosopher put forward his famous ethical argument regarding the hypothetical state of nature in which humans enjoyed most of their natural rights without the state. From this fundamental assumption stem most of Locke’s theories. The fact that property could be freely exchanged, sold, or accumulated in that natural condition led Locke to argue that governments ought not interfere with most aspects of the economy and society. Moreover, no people living in a natural state of freedom would consent to have all their liberty taken away. Therefore, government requires the consent of the people, and this makes all government conditional. The role of the state should be limited to protecting life, liberty, and property from those few predatory members of the human race whom Locke referred to as the “quarrelsome and the contentious.” Since the role of government is limited, its power should also be limited.

  See the entry about Locke in the Goodrich Seminar Room.

  John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, ed. Thomas Hollis (London: A. Millar et al., 1764).

  Accessed from oll.libertyfund.org/title/222 on 2007-12-03

• 10. Adam Smith, An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

  Adam Smith (1723-1790) is often considered the first modern economist because of his seminal work on the self-ordering nature of market forces, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). But economics was not his only interest. Smith’s first work, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), describes principles of human nature that can be used to analyze social institutions and behavior. Smith questioned how humans can form moral judgments (especially about their own behavior) given the powerful desire for self-preservation. He answered by pointing to the individual’s capacity to, first, sympathize with the plight of those suffering injustice and, second, reflect on the nature and source of correct behavior. Smith sought to develop the theme of self-regulation further in his masterpiece, The Wealth of Nations (1776). At the center of this work is the question: How can a system of perfect liberty function, given the drives and constraints of human nature, to produce an orderly society? Smith argued that orderliness on a larger scale arises from the same clash of passion and reason that produces it on the personal scale. Competition produces restraints on private action. Both society and the economy, according to Smith, can be understood by a commonsense analysis of human motivation. He dubbed the natural order established by the interaction of interested forces in society the “Invisible Hand.” The success of this natural system of order depends upon a minimum of government interference by regulation and expropriation. Smith was therefore critical of mercantilism and monopolies and favored a laissez-faire economic policy. He contended that government has only three proper roles: (1) to provide for the defense of the state, (2) to ensure justice for the population, and (3) to provide certain public works and institutions that no person or organization can provide. Smith’s analysis of economic forces demonstrated the importance, for a society, of free markets and the division of labor in the production of wealth. All later economic works have had to address this contribution in one way or another.

  See the entry about Adam Smith in the Goodrich Seminar Room.

  Adam Smith, An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Vol. I ed. R. H. Campbell and A. S. Skinner, vol. II of the Glasgow Edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1981).

  Accessed from oll.libertyfund.org/title/220 on 2007-12-03