1. Cato and Republican Liberty

Joseph Addison, Cato. A Tragedy (1713)

This volume contains the first edition of the play along with four pamphlets providing a history of Cato the Younger's opposition to Julius Caesar and commentary on the play for readers.

Accompanying this lovely frontispiece to the first edition of Joseph Addison's play is the following verse:

A Roman must not be a Romans Lord
He's master of himself whilst master of his Sword
His Sword was allways Drawn for Liberty
Nor must be Sheath'd untill Its Masters free
He Conquers Falling and Triumphing Dyes
And Caesar Views his End with Envious Eyes

The story of Cato the Younger's opposition to the military and political policies of Julius Caesar inspired a couple of generations of readers before the outbreak of the American Revolution. "Cato" was the subject of a play by Addison and the name was taken up by defenders of liberty who wished to remain anonymous or who wised to identify with the republican cause, such as John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon in their "Cato's Letters" (1720-23). Whereas Cato resorted to suicide in order to deny Caesar the pleasure of capturing and executing him, Brutus joined in the conspiracy to assassinate Caesar and he too has enjoyed some celebration among republican writers, such as Voltaire's play Brutus (1730).

[For more on this topic see the Debate: Cato and Caesar.]

2. Portraits of Washington and Napoleon in their Study

There are some striking parallels in the lives of George Washington (1732-1799) and Napoléon Bonaparte (1769-1821): both were military leaders who helped their countries during a revolution and both came to power as head of a republic which had shaken off the shackles of monarchy. But whereas Washington was content to return to civilian life and promote the development of the new republican institutions of the U.S., Napoleon sought to centralize power in his own hands as First Consul and then as a self-crowned Emperor of the French. The former remained a staunch republican whilst the latter turned into a military tyrant.

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4. The People and the Ruling Elite in Caricatures by John Wade (1835) and Honoré Daumier (1831)

Top: (Unknown artist), “John Bull as Gulliver” (1835) - [See a larger version of this image 2.7 MB JPG] Bottom: Honoré Daumier, “Gargantua” (1831) - [See a larger version of this image 270 KB JPG]

These two caricatures from the 1830s show how ordinary people are exploited by the ruling elites through taxation and regulation. They were created at a time when agitation for democratic reforms were strong in both England and France. The top image comes from the radical English reformer John Wade's Extraordinary Black Book (1834) which chronicles how politicians, the army, the church, and the legal profession literally "tie up" John Bull and rifle his pockets. The bottom image was drawn by the French republican artist Honoré Daumier for a satirical magazine in 1831. It depicts a fat and pear-shaped King Louis Philippe as a "tax eater" who takes from the oprdinary people and gives privileges to the ruling elite. For making this drawing Daumier spent 6 months in prison for offending the king.

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6. Monuments to Two 19th Century Free Traders: Frédéric Bastiat (1801-1850) & Richard Cobden (1804-1865)

Top: A monument erected in memory of the French free trade advocate Frédéric Bastiat (1801-1850) in the town of Mugron in S.W. France (1878) Bottom: A statue erected in memory of the English free tradeadvocate Richard Cobden (1804-1865) in London (1868)

Richard Cobden (1804-1865) and Frédéric Bastiat (1801-1850) agitated for and eventually helped create the conditions for expanded free trade among the people of Europe in the mid-19th century. Richard Cobden began the process by forming the Anti-Corn Law League in Britain in 1838 in the manufacturing city of Manchester in order to eliminate the tariffs and price controls on imported "corn" ( i.e. wheat) which was the main staple for working class Britishers. Using innovative techniques to mobilize public opinion in favour of repealing the "corn laws", as they were known, Cobden and the Anti-Corn Law League were able to put sufficient pressure on the British government to force their repeal in 1846. Cobden's success inspired the Frenchman Frédéric Bastiat to emulate his tactics by starting a free trade movement in France. Bastiat initially failed to organize the French people as Cobden had done with his Société de la liberté des échanges but he went on to develop some of the best articles and books in favour of free trade ever penned before his untimely death in 1850. The culmination of both their lives' work came in 1860 when Cobden and the French politician Michel Chevalier signed the Anglo-French Treaty of Commerce in 1860 ushering in a period of relative free trade in Europe which lasted until the 1890s when tariff wars between the major European powers again broke out. Their appreciative supporters raised the money to erect these monuments to celebrate their achievements for economic liberty.

[See the more detailed Guide to the Bastiat and Cobden monuments]
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7. The Divine Right of Kings or Regal Tyranny? Thomas Hobbes (1651) vs John Lilburne (1647)

Top: Frontispiece to Thomas Hobbes, The Leviathan (1651) by Abraham Bosse (1602-1676) Bottom: Title page to John Lilburne's Regall Tyrannie discovered (1647)

During the upheavals of the English Revolution when the divine right of the English monarchy was challenged by Parliament, the king executed, and a Commonwealth under Cromwell instituted, there was vigorous debate about the kind of government which should be instituted. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) argued for a powerful absolute monarch ("The Leviathan") who could keep order and provide essential government services. Above is the famous frontispiece of his book The Leviathan (1651) which shows the Leviathan (or the absolute monarch) wearing a crown and holding a sword (a symbol of military power) and a crosier (of religious power). His body is literally the “body politic” as it is made up of millions of his subjects. He is thus also literally the “head” of state. He stands above the two pillars of his power: the army (the column on the left) and the established church (on the right). These views were vigorously challenged by groups within the parliamentary army most notably by the so-called "Levellers" who were the first group to argue for the natural rights of individuals (especially property), religious toleration, and elected parliaments which were responsible to the people. They briefly challenged the divine right of kings to rule before they were crushed by Oliver Cromwell, but their political theory lived on to influence later generations leading up to the American Revolution 140 years later.The lower image is the title page of a Leveller tract by John Lilburne, Regall Tyrannie Discovered (London, 1647). The title page is an excellent counterpoise to the Hobbes' title page because it literally rejects every principle advocated by Hobbes. Like many of the pamphlets produced during the revolution it was hastily composed and cheaply printed, often under cover to prevent the censors from seizing the copies before they were distributed. The author and printers had neither the money nor the skill to create well-designed title pages for their works. The best they could do was to use some inventive typesetting to arrange the paragraphs on the front page in interesting and artistic shapes. The tract is over 200 pages in length and Lilburne wanted to give a summary of his main arguments on the title page - hence the very lengthy "sub-title" (if you can call it that) in which he calls the king and parliament "delinquents", "ruffians," "invaders," "rotten members", and "tyrants." He had in mind exactly the kind of monarch which Hobbes depicted on his title page.

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8. Images used by the British Abolitionist Movement in the 1780s

The British Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade was founded in 1787 by a group (predominantly Quaker) of committed anti-slavery advocates who attempted to change public opinion about the morality of slavery and to persuade Parliament to enact its abolition throughout the empire. Early members inlcuded William Wilberforce (a member of parliament), Thomas Clarkson (a gifted orator and writer), and Josiah Wedgwood (a successful pottery industrialist). A key to their success was a clever marketing campaign to arouse public opinion in favour of abolition. Using designs created by Wedgwood, the committee disseminated medallions, cameo jewelry, seals, coins, and pamphlets showing the classic image of the kneeling African slave, with chains on his hands and legs, asking the very pertinent question which cut to the heart of the immorality of slavery: "Am I not a man and a brother?" After 20 years of campaigning the British parliament eventually passed legislation ending the slave trade in 1807. The committee then redirected its efforts to abolishing slavery itself in the colonies, which was achieved in 1833.Wedgwood's iconic image was also used in various adaptations in France and the United States in the 1830s as the aboitionist movement developed in the decades leading up to the Civil War. Versions appeared which also showed female slaves asking if they were not sisters of the free Europeans.

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9. Liberty Slaying the Monsters of Tyranny and Oppression

W.D. Cooper, "America Trampling on Oppression" (1789) Source: Library of Congress

The first image is British and comes from E. Newberry, History of North America (London: 1789). The frontispiece is by W.D. Cooper and is called "America Trampling on Oppression". America/Liberty is depicted as the goddess Minerva who is the goddess of war, poetry, music, medicine, and wisdom. Above her head is a spear with intertwined snakes (medicine) and a sword (war). She has her left foot on a wolf's head (the British Empire which had been defeated by the American colonists in the Revolutionary War); next to her right foot is an overturned cornucopia out of which is spilling coins (suggesting the bounty that is to come once the Americans are free of British oppression). In her left hand she holds a staff with the Phrygian cap of liberty on top; her right arm is held upwards with her index finger outstretched (it looks like she is "giving the finger" to the British Empire!). She is flanked by a pair of Roman columns: on the column to her right there is a picture of Doc. Benjamin Franklin and symbols of science, music, and learning; on her left is Gen. George Washington with symbols of military power. It is interesting that such prominence is given to Franklin and Washington, suggesting that the reason for America's success against British "oppression" was a combination of both practical learning (Franklin) and military prowess (Washington). We compare this American image with a contemporary one from the French perspective... [Read more]

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10. James Gillray on Debt and Taxes during the Napoleonic Wars

Image Title: James Gillray, "A Great Stream from a Petty-Fountain; or John Bull swamped in the Flood of new-Taxes; Cormorants Fishing the Stream" (1806). [See a larger version of this image 2.5 MB JPG].

James Gillray (1756-1815) trained as engraver but became best known for making hundreds of caricatures of British social and political life in the 1790s and 1800s. He satirized in particular King George III, William Pitt, the French Jacobins, Napoleon, and many others in the British political and military establishment. A recurring theme in his work was the dramatic increase in taxation and the national debt which was imposed in order to fight the wars against Napoleon and which placed a growing burden on the English people (represented as "John Bull"). Gillray also satirized the large numbers of well-connected people in the government and the military who profited from increased government expenditure by depicting them as greedy cormorants, sucking pigs, highway men, and wasps and hornets.

In this caricature, on the left we see John Bull (the personification of Britain) in a sinking boat which has been swamped by a mass of new taxes to fund the war against Napoleon. He has lost hold of an oar with the name of "William Pitt" written on it. [William Pitt the Younger was Prime Minister from 1804-1806 as well as Chancellor of the Exchequer (or minister of finance)]. On the right we see a man's head (Lord Henry Petty the new Chancellor of the Exchequer) from whose mouth pours a fountain of water labelled "new taxes" which are named in the cascades of the fountain (taxes on salt, tea, hops, malt, sugar, alcohol, candles, horses, servants, soap, houses, land, stamps, windows, property, etc.). In the foreground we see 10 hungry cormorants with human heads devouring the fish, crabs, and eels which thrive in the waters of the tax fountain. In the middle ground there are 2 other human-headed birds; in the distance we can see dozens more hungry cormorants heading towards the tax feast. The heads of the cormorants probably depict prominent politicians and other figures of the day. [more]

[See other works on the Debate about the French Revolution]

12. John Lilburne reading from Coke's Institutes at his Treason Trial (1649) [See a larger version of this image 250 KB JPG]

John Lilburne (1615-1657) was a leader in the Leveller movement of the 1640s and was a prolific pamphleteer who defended religious and individual liberty. He was imprisoned several times for his views and was active in the army of the New Parliament rising to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. In October 1649 he was arrested and tried for High Treason for printing and circulating books and pamphlets critical of the government but was acquitted of all charges by a jury of his peers. He defended himself vigorously in court, quoting from the works of the great jurist Sir Edward Coke. In this rather triumphant drawing we see Lilburne (or "Free-borne John" as he was called in reference to his constant quoting of the rights of all free born Englishmen) lieterally standing before the bench and reading from a copy of Coke's Institutes (or commentaries on the laws of England). Coke's Second Part of the Institutes had appeared in 1642 and were a detailed gloss on the Great Charter of Liberties (or Magna Carta) of 1215. This is the volume Lilburne is probably reading from and a passage on the nature of English Liberties which might have caught his eye can be found here. Above his head we can see on the right a plaque which lists the names of the jurymen who freed him. In a pamphlet he published soon after his acquittal he listed the date of publication as "Printed in the fall of Tyranny. 1649."
[more (to come)]
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14. Presidents Day and the Apotheosis of Washington

John James Barralet, "The Apotheosis of Washington" (1802) [See a larger version of the image as an engraved print for more details].

In the United States the third Monday of February is designated "Washington's Birthday", better known by the name "Presidents Day". There appear to be two main periods for the creation of images of the apotheoisis of Washington. The first comes immediately after his death in 1799 and the second comes after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln (April 1865). The image above was drawn by John James Barralet and it appeared in various forms between 1802 and 1816. It shows George Washington ascending into heaven assisted by Father Time and an angel (or "Immortality"). Shafts of light shine down from heaven through a break in the clouds as the angel and Father Time lift Washington, wrapped in a red piece of cloth or perhaps his burial shroud, from what appears to be his coffin or crypt. To the left three women (Faith, Hope, and Charity) can be seen: one holds her hand out towards him grieving; another holds two children in her arms; and a third is slumped forward on her arms weeping. Beneath Washington can be seen an American eagle, the American shield on which is written "e pluribus unum" and Liberty, whose head is bowed in sorrow. Her staff with the red phrygian cap is resting among Washington's discarded armour and sword which lie beside a facses. In the far right bottom corner we can see a American Indian with his hatchet and arrows sitting with his head resting on his knees. This is one of many images of Washington which appeared in the 19th century. He appeared on stamps, paper money, postcards and prints, as well as a monumental fresco by Brumidi on the ceiling of the Capitol Building painted in 1865. [more]
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15. Algernon Sidney (1622-1683) and the Thomas Hollis Library of Liberty [Hollis/Cipriani, Frontispiece to Sidney's Discourses concerning Government (1762)] [See a higher resolution image 3.8 MB JPG]

This image was designed by Thomas Hollis and appeared as the frontispiece of his 1762 edition of Algernon Sidney's Discourses concerning Government (1698) which was one of the most important works on republicanism to appear in the 17th century and which had a profound effect on the thinking of the American colonists during the American Revolution. It shows a long-haired, rather aristocratic Sidney dressed in the army uniform he wore during the 1640s. Over his shoulder he carries a banner with the Latin motto "Sanctus amor patriae dat animum" (the sacred love of the fatherland inspires). He turned against the revolution after Oliver Cromwell was appointed Lord Protector and went into self-imposed exile when the Stuart monarchy was restored in 1660. While he was Ambassador to Denmark in 1659 he wrote a provocative Latin motto in the King's visitors book which is included in the text above: "manus haec inimica tyrannis, ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem" which can be translated as "this hand, hostile to tyrants, seeks with the sword a quiet peace under liberty". This motto was adopted by the State of Massachusetts in 1775 as its official motto in recognition of the important role Sidney's ideas played in the formation of the American republic. [more]
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16. Abraham Lincoln as the "Federal Phoenix" rising from the fire of the American Constitution (1864) [John Tenniel, "The Federal Phoenix", Punch, Volume 47, December 3, 1864.] [See a larger version of this image 344 KB JPG]

This week is the 150th anniversary of the start of the American "Civil War" or "War for Southern Independence" depending on one's political point of view. The image above is by the British cartoonist and illustrator John Tenniel (1820-1914) which appeared in the December 1864 issue of the satirical magazine Punch. Lincoln had recently won a hotly contested presidential election against his Democratic opponent George McClellan. To Tenniel and his English readers it seemed that Lincoln and the Republican Party had "risen from the ashes" of defeat like the proverbial phoenix. A rather stern and arrogant looking Lincoln is unfurling his political wings ready for another 4 years in office. At the end of its lifespan the phoenix is consumed by fire and emerges anew (or resurrected) for another long cycle of life. In this picture the fire which consumes the old phoenix and readies it for another life are logs with the names "Commerce," "United States Constitution," "Free Press," "Credit," "Habeus Corpus," and "States Rights." Tenniel (along with many contemporary American critics of Lincoln) thought that the American Republic itself had been consumed by the fire of civil war which had brought about press censorship, the imprisonment of critics, the suspension of habeas corpus rights, the imposition of the income tax, and other measures. [More]
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17. New Playing Cards for the French Republic (1793-94): The Spirit of Peace (Motto: "Prosperity") [See larger image 600px]

This is a playing card from a charming collection of new designs for a deck which were issued during the French Revolution (1793-94). They were designed by moderate liberal republican supporters of the revolution (which included people such as the Marquis de Condorcet) who believed in the rule of law, free markets, the equality of women under the law, and the emancipation of slaves. As they said in their pamphlet they wanted to reinforce the principles of the revolution in such everyday items as playing cards, since the traditional designs had face or "court" cards depicting Kings, Queens, and Jacks who were the beneficiaries of the old privileged political order which had just been overthrown. It seemed obvious to them that a new design even for such mundaine things as playing cards was required under the Republic to reflect the new principles of government and which "the love of liberty demands". Here we show "The Spirit of Peace" (equivalent to the Queen of Clubs) which the designers explain as follows: ""Peace" is seated on an ancient seat and is holding in one hand the roll of the laws, in his other hand is the fasces signifying concord and on which is written the word "Union". Lying near him are a cornucopia and a plowshare; an olive branch which he is holding in his right hand shows its influence and justifies the word "Prosperity" which is placed next to him." An intriguing aspect of the designs was the important role which they gave to economic liberty: the Spirit of Peace" has as his motto "prosperity"; the "Spirit of Commerce" has for his "wealth"; and the "Liberty of the Professions" has "industry". Thus fully one quarter of the face cards deals with one or another aspect of economic freedom. [More]
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18. Pieter Brueghel the Elder, "The Numeration (Census) of the People of Bethlehem" (1566) [See a larger version of this image 6.5 MB JPG 2439 px]

Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1525-1569) was a Flemish painter famous for his landscapes and depictions of peasant life. In this painting he takes Luke's account of the birth of Jesus in the town of Bethlehem and transposes it to mid-16th century Netherlands. The Reformation had taken root in the Netherlands which at that time was ruled by Catholic Spain under the Bourbon monarch Philip II. In addition to religious turmoil and persecution, the Flemish people suffered under heavy taxation imposed by Philip II in order to fight wars against the Ottoman Turks for control of the Mediterranean. In this context it is not surprising that Brueghel would find the biblical story of Joseph and Mary, forced by the Roman Emperor Caesar Augustus to return to their ancestral city in order to be taxed, rather compelling. In the left foreground we see a cluster of ordinary people lined up to have their names checked off a ledger and then forced to hand over their taxes to an imperial official. The rest of the painting is taken up with scenes of ordinary people at work and play in the middle of winter. The Dutch Revolt against Spanish imperial control broke out in 1568 shortly after the work was painted. [More]
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19. The Spanish-American War and the Anti-Imperialism League (1902) "Expansion" The Public (January 31, 1902) [See a larger version of this image 1.4 MB JPG]

This cartoon appeared in the January 31, 1902 edition of the Chicago magazine The Public which was edited by Louis Freeland Post (1849-1928). In the Spanish-American War of 1898 the U.S. defeated Spain and acquired its colonies in the Pilippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam.This policy was opposed by members of the Anti-Imperialist League and by liberals such as Post on the grounds that it violated the principles of Jefferson (The Declaration of Independence), Washington (his Farewell Address), and Lincoln. The cartoon shows the figure of Uncle Sam who has been pinned to the ground by members of Theodore Roosevelt's administration who are dressed like little devils (some are named: Taft, Spooner, Lodge) who have around their necks a medallion which says "IMP". They are using the Philippino "water torture" to force Uncle Sam (the House & the Senate) to confess that an Empire is better than a Republic. Uncle Sam can be seen clutching a copy of the Declaration of Independence and one of the devils is kicking his hat which spills out papers which have the names of Adams, Washington, Hancock, (William Graham) Sumner, Franklin, Lincoln, Madison, ect. The water barrel is called "Roosevelt's Platform" and has written on it "Imperial Measure administered by the Administration: Repeal of the Declaration of Independence. Perversion of Monroe Doctrine. Military Despotism. Violation of Rules of War. Government by Injunction. AUTOCRACY, ARISTOCRACY, PLUTOCRACY, FEUDALISM." In the foreground at the foot of one of the devils is a document which says "Act of Congress giving President despotic control of Puerto Rico & Philippines" and another which says "Army Bill giving President despotic control of troops." The title of the cartoon is "Expansion" which refers to both the territorial expansion of the U.S. after 1898 and the expansion of Uncle Sam's belly as large quantities of water are forced into his stomach as part of the "water cure" he is forced to endure. [More]

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20. Jacques Callot, Hugo Grotius, and the Miseries of War in the 17th Century Jacques Callot, "The Miseries and Misfortunes of War" (1633) 7. Plundering and Burning a Village [See a larger version of this image (1368 px)]

In this series we want to explore the problem of war in 17th century Europe by juxtaposing an image from the series of 18 etchings made by Jacques Callot showing the ravages of war in his native Lorraine during the Thirty Years War (1618-48), with passages from Hugo Grotius,The Rights of War and Peace (1625) which is a foundation stone of the modern understanding of the laws of war. In this, the 7th picture in the series, we see armed soldiers pillaging and burning a village which includes a small chapel in the upper centre (there is a cross to its left). The inhabitants and livestock are rounded up to be taken off as prisoners or booty. Livestock can be seen being herded at the lower right. A man can be seen being killed at the lower left under a tree.There is a grieviing wife who sits next to her dead husband in the centre foreground. Grotius noted that conquest of territory traditionally gave the conquerors "possession" of what they seized but he thought it strange to then go about destroying what had taken so much effort to acquire: "it is not a strange Conduct, to make War in such a Manner, that at the same Time, we dispute the Possession of a Thing, we leave nothing for ourselves but War". He discusses this and other matters in a chapter called Concerning Moderation in regard to the spoiling the Country of our Enemies, and such other Things. [More]
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21. March (ploughing the fields) From the Très riches heures du Duc de Barry (1416) [See a larger & full version of this image 450 px]

The snow has melted and the peasants go about preparing the soil for the spring planting. In the background we can see the Château de Lusignan (in the Department of Vienne) on a hill top dominating the farmland about. The Chateau was a formidable defensive structure with multiple defensive walls and was probably at its height when owned by the Duc de Berry in the early 15th century. To the left we can see the barbican tower (the gatehouse), in the center the clocktower with its external privy, and to the right a tower with a protective golden dragon on its roof. On the slopes below the castle we can see various peasant activities: at the top left we can see a shepherd and his dog looking after a flock of sheep; below this are three peasants pruning the vines; to their right is a vineyard which has already been prepared for the spring growing season; at the far right is a peasant sifting a bag of seed corn; and in the foreground we see a peasant ploughing a field with 2 oxen. Given its prominent place in the picture and the extraordinary detail with which it is painted, the Limburg brothers were keen to show how important agriculture was to the peasant economy and how dependent upon it for their upkeep were the castles and chateaux of the aristocracy. We have selected an appropriate quotation from the works of members of the Scottish Enlightenment to go with the illustrations from the Très Riches Heures. We have done this because the Très Riches Heures is a marvellous depiction of many aspects of social and economic life in Europe in the early 15th century and it was a feature of the Scottish Enlightenment to explore how European societies made the transition from a system of peasant agriculture dominated by an aristocratic class to a modern market society in which mass production and the division of labor satisfied the needs of consumers in a voluntary fashion. [More]
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