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Part VIII, Chapter XXXIII THE MODERN THEORY OF COLONISATION. 70 - Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Volume I: The Process of Capitalist Production [1867]

Edition used:

Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Volume I: The Process of Capitalist Production, by Karl Marx. Trans. from the 3rd German edition, by Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling, ed. Federick Engels. Revised and amplified according to the 4th German ed. by Ernest Untermann (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr and Co., 1909).

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Part VIII, Chapter XXXIII
THE MODERN THEORY OF COLONISATION.70

POLITICAL economy confuses on principle two very different kinds of private property, of which one rests on the producers' own labour, the other on the employment of the labour of others. It forgets that the latter not only is the direct antithesis of the former, but absolutely grows on its tomb only. In Western Europe, the home of political economy, the process of primitive accumulation is more or less accomplished. Here the capitalist régime has either directly conquered the whole domain of national production, or, where economic conditions are less developed, it, as least, indirectly controls those strata of society which, though belonging to the antiquated mode of production, continue to exist side by side with it in gradual decay. To this ready-made world of capital, the political economist applies the notions of law and of property inherited from a pre-capitalistic world with all the more anxious zeal and all the greater unction, the more loudly the facts cry out in the face of his idealogy. It is otherwise in the colonies. There the capitalist régime everywhere comes into collision with the resistance of the producer, who, as owner of his own conditions of labour, employs that labour to enrich himself, instead of the capitalist. The contradiction of these two diametrically opposed economic systems, manifests itself here practically in a struggle between them. Where the capitalist has at his back the power of the mother-country, he tries to clear out of his way by force, the modes of production and appropriation, based on his independent labour of the producer. The same interest which compels the sycophant of capital, the political economist, in the mother-country, to proclaim the theoretical identity of the capitalist mode of production with its contrary, that same interest compels him in the colonies to make a clean breast of it, and to proclaim aloud the antagonism of the two modes of production. To this end he proves how the development of the social productive power of labour, co-operation, division of labour, use of machinery on a large scale, 8c., are impossible without the expropriation of the labourers, and the corresponding transformation of their means of production into capital. In the interest of the so-called national wealth, he seeks for artificial means to ensure the poverty of the people. Here his apologetic armour crumbles off, bit by bit, like rotten touchwood. It is the great merit of E.g. Wakefield to have discovered, not anything new about the Colonies,71 but to have discovered in the Colonies the truth as to the conditions of capitalist production in the mother-country. As the system of protection at its origin72 attempted to manufacture capitalists artificially in the mother-country. so Wakefield's colonisation theory, which England tried for a time to enforce by Acts of Parliament, attempted to effect the manufacture of wage-workers in the Colonies. This he calls "systematic colonisation."

First of all, Wakefield discovered that in the Colonies property in money, means of subsistence, machines and other means of production, does not as yet stamp a man as a capitalist if there be wanting the correlative—the wage-worker, the other man who is compelled to sell himself of his own free-will. He discovered that capital is not a thing, but a social relation between persons, established by the instrumentality of things.73 Mr. Peel, he moans, took with him from England to Swan River, West Australia, means of subsistence and of production to the amount of £50,000. Mr. Peel had the foresight to bring with him, besides, 3000 persons of the working-class, men, women, and children. Once arrived at his destination, "Mr. Peel was left without a servant to make his bed or fetch him water from the river."74 Unhappy Mr. Peel who provided for everything except the export of English modes of production to Swan River!

For the understanding of the following discoveries of Wakefield, two preliminary remarks: We know that the means of production and subsistence, while they remain the property of the immediate producer, are not capital. They become capital, only under circumstances in which they serve at the same time as means of exploitation and subjection of the labourer. But this capitalist soul of theirs is so intimately wedded, in the head of the political economist, to their material substance, that he christens them capital under all circumstances, even when they are its exact opposite. Thus is it with Wakefield. Further: the splitting up of the means of production into the individual property of many independent labourers, working on their own account, he calls equal division of capital. It is with the political economist as with the feudal jurist. The latter stuck on to pure monetary relations the labels supplied by feudal law.

"If," says Wakefield, "all the members of the society are supposed to possess equal portions of capital...no man would have a motive for accumulating more capital than he could use with his own hands. This is to some extent the case in new American settlements, where a passion for owning land prevents the existence of a class of labourers for hire."75 So long, therefore, as the labourer can accumulate for himself—and this he can do so long as he remains possessor of his means of production—capitalist accumulation and the capitalistic mode of production are impossible. The class of wage-labourers, essential to these, is wanting. How, then, in old Europe, was the expropriation of the labourer from his conditions of labour, i.e., the co-existence of capital and wage-labour, labour, brought about? By a social contract of a quite original kind. "Mankind have adopted a...simple contrivance for promoting the accumulation of capital," which, of course, since the time of Adam, floated in their imagination as the sole and final end of their existence: "they have divided themselves into owners of capital and owners of labour.... This division was the result of concert and combination."76 In one word: the mass of mankind expropriated itself in honour of the "accumulation of capital." Now, one would think, that this instinct of self-denying fanaticism would give itself full fling especially in the Colonies, where alone exist the men and conditions that could turn a social contract from a dream to a reality. But why, then, should "systematic colonisation" be called in to replace its opposite, spontaneous, unregulated colonisation? But—but—"In the Northern States of the American Union, it may be doubted whether so many as a tenth of the people would fall under the description of hired labourers.... In England...the labouring class compose the bulk of the people."77 Nay, the impulse to self-expropriation, on the part of labouring humanity, for the glory of capital, exists so little, that slavery, according to Wakefield himself, is the sole natural basis of Colonial wealth. His systematic colonisation is a mere pis aller, since he unfortunately has to do with free men, not with slaves. "The first Spanish settlers in Saint Domingo did not obtain labourers from Spain. But, without labourers, their capital must have perished, or, at least, must soon have been diminished to that small amount which each individual could employ with his own hands. This has actually occurred in the last Colony founded by Englishmen—the Swan River Settlement—where a great mass of capital, of seeds, implements, and cattle, has perished for want of labourers to use it, and where no settler has preserved much more capital than he can employ with his own hands."78

We have seen that the expropriation of the mass of the people from the soil forms the basis of the capitalist mode of production. The essence of a free colony, on the contrary, consists in this—that the bulk of the soil is still public property, and every settler on it therefore can turn part of it into his private property and individual means of production, without hindering the later settlers in the same operation.79 This is the secret both of the prosperity of the colonies and of their inveterate vice—opposition to the establishment of capital. "Where land is very cheap and all men are free, where one who so pleases can easily obtain a piece of land for himself, not only is labour very dear, as respects the labourer's share of the produce, but the difficulty is to obtain combined labour at any price."80

As in the colonies the separation of the labourer from the conditions of labour and their root, the soil, does not yet exist, or only sporadically, or on too limited a scale, so neither does the separation of agriculture from industry exist, nor the destruction of the household industry of the peasantry. Whence then is to come the internal market for capital? "No part of the population of America is exclusively agricultural, excepting slaves and their employers who combine capital and labour in particular works. Free Americans, who cultivate the soil, follow many other occupations. Some portion of the furniture and tools which they use is commonly made by themselves. They frequently build their own houses, and carry to market, at whatever distance, the produce of their own industry. They are spinners and weavers; they make soap and candles, as well as, in many cases, shoes and clothes for their own use. In America the cultivation of land is often the secondary pursuit of a blacksmith, a miller or a shopkeeper."81 With such queer people as these, where is the "field of abstinence" for the capitalists?

The great beauty of capitalist production consists in this—that it not only constantly reproduces the wage-worker as wage-worker, but produces always, in proportion to the accumulation of capital, a relative surplus population of wage-workers. Thus the law of supply and demand of labour is kept in the right rut, the oscillation of wages is penned within limits satisfactory to capitalist exploitation, and lastly, the social dependence of the labourer on the capitalist, that indispensable requisite, is secured; an unmistakeable relation of dependence, which the smug political economist, at home, in the mother country, can transmogrify into one of free contract between buyer and seller, between equally independent owners of commodities, the owner of the commodity capital and the owner of the commodity labour. But in the colonies this pretty fancy is torn asunder. The absolute population here increases much more quickly than in the mother-country, because many labourers enter this world as ready-made adults, and yet the labour market is always understocked. The law of the supply and demand of labour falls to pieces. On the one hand, the old world constantly throws in capital, thirsting after exploitation and "abstinence;" on the other, the regular reproduction of the wage-labourer as wage-labourer comes into collision with impediments the most impertinent and in part invincible. What becomes of the production of wage-labourers, supernumerary in proportion to the accumulation of capital? The wage-worker of to-day is to-morrow an independent peasant, or artisan, working for himself. He vanishes from the labour-market, but not into the workhouse. This constant transformation of the wage-labourers into independent producers, who work for themselves instead of for capital, and enrich themselves instead of the capitalist gentry, reacts in its turn very perversely on the conditions of the labour-market. Not only does the degree of exploitation of the wage-labourer remain indecently low. The wage-labourer loses into the bargain, along with the relation of dependence, also the sentiment of dependence on the abstemious capitalist. Hence all the inconveniences that our E.g. Wakefield pictures so doughtily, so eloquently, so pathetically.

The supply of wage-labour, he complains, is neither constant, nor regular, nor sufficient. "The supply of labour is always, not only small, but uncertain."82 "Though the produce divided between the capitalist and the labourer be large the labourer takes so great a share that he soon becomes a capitalist.... Few, even of those whose lives are unusually long, can accumulate great masses of wealth."83 The labourers most distinctly declines to allow the capitalist to abstain from the payment of the greater part of their labour. It avails him nothing if he is so cunning as to import from Europe, with his own capital, his own wage-workers. They soon "cease...to be labourers for hire; they...become independent landowners, if not competitors with their former masters in the labour market."84 Think of the horror! The excellent capitalist has imported bodily from Europe, with his own good money, his own competitors! The end of the world has come! No wonder Wakefield laments the absence of all dependence and of all sentiment of dependence on the part of the wage-workers in the colonies. On account of the high wages, says his disciple, Merivale, there is in the colonies "the urgent desire for cheaper and more subservient labourers—for a class to whom the capitalist might dictate terms, instead of being dictated to by them.... In ancient civilized countries the labourer, though free, is by law of nature dependent on capitalists; in colonies this dependence must be created by artificial means."85

What is now, according to Wakefield, the consequence of this unfortunate state of things in the colonies? A "barbarising tendency of dispersion" of producers and national wealth.86 The parcelling-out of the means of production among innumerable owners, working on their own account, annihilates, along with the centralisation of capital, all the foundations of combined labour. Every long-winded undertaking, extending over several years and demanding outlay of fixed capital, is prevented from being carried out. In Europe, capital invests without hesitating a moment, for the working-class constitutes its living appurtenance, always in excess, always at disposal. But in the colonies! Wakefield tells an extremely doleful anecdote. He was talking with some capitalists of Canada and the state of New York, where the immigrant wave often becomes stagnant and deposits a sediment of "supernumerary" labourers. "Our capital," says one of the characters in the melodrama, "was ready for many operations which require a considerable period of time for their completion; but we could not begin such operations with labour which, we knew, would soon leave us. If we had been sure of retaining the labour of such emigrants, we should have been glad to have engaged it at once, and for a high price: and we should have engaged it, even though we had been sure it would leave us, provided we had been sure of a fresh supply whenever we might need it."87

After Wakefield has contrasted the English capitalist agriculture and its "combined" labour with the scattered cultivation of American peasants, he unwittingly gives us a glimpse at the reverse of the medal. He depicts the mass of the American people as well-to-do, independent, enterprising and comparatively cultured, whilst "the English agricultural labourer is a miserable wretch, a pauper.... In what country, except North America and some new colonies, do the wages of free labour employed in agriculture, much exceed a bare subsistence for the labourer?...Undoubtedly, farm-horses in England, being a valuable property, are better fed than English peasants."88 But, never mind, national wealth is, once again, by its very nature, identical with misery of the people.

How, then, to heal the anti-capitalistic cancer of the colonies? If men were willing, at a blow, to turn all the soil from public into private property, they would destroy certainly the root of the evil, but also—the colonies. The trick is how to kill two birds with one stone. Let the Government put upon the virgin soil an artificial price, independent of the law of supply and demand, a price that compels the immigrant to work a long time for wages before he can earn enough money to buy land, and turn himself into an independent peasant.89 The funds resulting from the sale of land at a price relatively prohibitory for the wage-workers, this fund of money extorted from the wages of labour by violation of the sacred law of supply and demand, the Government is to employ, on the other hand, in proportion as it grows, to import have-nothings from Europe into the colonies, and thus keep the wage-labour market full for the capitalists. Under these circumstances, tout sera pour le mieux dans le meilleur des mondes possibles. This is the great secret of "systematic colonisation." By this plan, Wakefield cries in triumph, "the supply of labour must be constant and regular, because, first, as no labourer would be able to procure land until he had worked for money, all immigrant labourers, working for a time for wages and in combination, would produce capital for the employment of more labourers; secondly, because every labourer who left off working for wages and became a landowner, would, by purchasing land, provide a fund for bringing fresh labour to the colony."90 The price of the soil imposed by the State must, of course, be a "sufficient price"—i.e., so high "as to prevent the labourers from becoming independent landowners until others had followed to take their place."91 This "sufficient price for the land" is nothing but a euphemistic circumlocution for the ransom which the labourer pays to the capitalist for leave to retire from the wage-labour market to the land. First, he must create for the capitalist "capital," with which the latter may be able to exploit more labourers; then he must place, at his own expense, a locum tenens on the labour market, whom the Government forwards across the sea for the benefit of his old master, the capitalist.

It is very characteristic that the English Government for years practised this method of "primitive accumulation," prescribed by Mr. Wakefield expressly for the use of the colonies. The fiasco was, of course, as complete as that of Sir Robert Peel's Bank Act. The stream of emigration was only diverted from the English colonies to the United States. Meanwhile, the advance of capitalistic production in Europe, accompanied by increasing Government pressure, has rendered Wakefield's recipe superfluous. On the one hand, the enormous and ceaseless stream of men, year after year driven upon America, leaves behind a stationary sediment in the east of the United States, the wave of immigration from Europe throwing men on the labour market there more rapidly than the wave of emigration westwards can wash them away. On the other hand, the American Civil War brought in its train a colossal national debt, and, with it, pressure of taxes, the rise of the vilest financial aristocracy, the squandering of a huge part of the public land on speculative companies for the exploitation of railways, mines, 8c., in brief, the most rapid centralisation of capital. The great republic has, therefore, ceased to be the promised land for emigrant labourers. Capitalistic production advances there with giant strides, even though the lowering of wages and the dependence of the wage-worker are yet far from being brought down to the normal European level. The shameless lavishing of uncultivated colonial land on aristicrats and capitalists by the Government, so loudly denounced even by Wakefield, has produced, especially in Australia,92 in conjunction with the stream of men that the gold-diggings attract, and with the competition that the importation of English commodities causes even to the smallest artisan, an ample "relative surplus labouring population," so that almost every mail brings the Job's news of a "glut of the Australian labour-market," and prostitution in some places there flourishes as wantonly as in the London Haymarket.

However, we are not concerned here with the condition of the colonies. The only thing that interests us is the secret discovered in the new world by the political economy of the old world, and proclaimed on the house-tops: that the capitalist mode of production and accumulation, and therefore capitalist private property, have for their fundamental condition the annihilation of self-earned private property; in other words, the expropriation of the labourer.

WORKS AND AUTHORS QUOTED IN "CAPITAL"

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ADDINGTON, Steph., ABRÉGÉ Élémentaire des Principes d'Économie Politique. (See under Anonymous)

ADDINGTON, Steph., ADVANTAGES of the East Indian Trade. (See under Anonymous).

AIKIN, Dr, Description of the country from thirty to forty miles round Manchester, London, 1795.

ANONYMOUS, ABBÉGÉ Élémentaire des Principes de l' Économie Politique. (See Garnier, G.), Paris, 1796.

ANONYMOUS, ADVANTAGES of the East Indian Trade to England, London, 1720.

ANONYMOUS, CASE, The, of our English Wool, etc, London, 1685.

ANONYMOUS, COMBINATION, On, of Trades, London, 1834.

ANONYMOUS, CONSIDERATIONS concerning taking off the bounty on Corn exported, London, 1753.

ANONYMOUS, CURRENCY QUESTION, The, London, 1847.

ANONYMOUS, CURRENCY QUESTION reviwed, The. A Letter to the Scotch People. By a Banker in England, London, 1845.

ANONYMOUS, DEFENCE, A, of the Landowners and Farmers of Great Britain, London, 1814.

ANONYMOUS, DISCOURSE concerning Trade, that in particular of the East Indies, London, 1689

ANONYMOUS, DISCOURSE, A, on the general notions of Money, Trade, and Exchange as they stand in relation to each other. By a merchant, London, 1695.

ANONYMOUS, DISCOURSE, A, on the Necessity of encouraging Mechanick Industry, London, 1690

ANONYMOUS, DISSERTATION, A critical, on the Nature, Measure, and Causes of Value, etc. (See Bailey S.), London, 1825.

ANONYMOUS, DISSERTATION on the Poor Laws. By A Well-wisher of Mankind. (See Townsend), London, 1786 (re-pub. 1817.)

ANONYMOUS, EAST India Trade, The, a most profitable Trade, London, 1696.

ANONYMOUS, ECONOMY, Public, concentrated, Carlisle, 1833.

ANONYMOUS, ENQUIRY into the connection between the high price of Provisions and the size of Farms. By a Farmer, London, 1773.

ANONYMOUS, ENQUIRY into the present high price of Provisions, London, 1767.

ANONYMOUS, ENQUIRY into the causes of the present high price of Provisions. (See Forster, Nathaniel), London, 1773.

ANONYMOUS, ENQUIRY into those principles respecting the nature of Demand as lately advocated by Mr. Malthus, London, 1821.

ANONYMOUS, ENQUIRY, A political, into the consequences of enclosing Waste Lands, London, 1785.

ANONYMOUS, ESSAY, An, on the Governing Causes of the Natural rate of Interest (See J. Massey), London, 1750.

ANONYMOUS, ESSAY, a prize, on the Comparative merits of Competition and Co-operation, London, 1834.

ANONYMOUS, ESSAY on Credit and the Bankrupt Act, London, 1707.

ANONYMOUS, ESSAY on the Political Economy of Nations, London, 1821.

ANONYMOUS, ESSAY on Public Credit, London, 1710.

ANONYMOUS, ESSAY on Trade and Commerce, London, 1770.

ANONYMOUS, ESSAYS on Political Economy in which are illustrated the principal causes of the present National Distress, London, 1830.

ANONYMOUS, FARMS, Capital, Two Letters on the Flour Trade, and the dearness of Corn. By a Person in Business, London, 1767.

ANONYMOUS, INDUSTRY of Nations, The, London, 1855.

ANONYMOUS, INQUIRY. (See Enquiry)

ANONYMOUS, KRANKHEITEN, Die. Welche verschiednen Ständen, Altern und Geschlechtern eigenthümlich sind, Ulm, 1860.

ANONYMOUS, LABOUR DEFENDED against Capital, by T. H. (See Hodgskin), London, 1825.

ANONYMOUS, LETTER, A, to Sir J. C. Banbury, Bt., On the high Price of Provisions. By a Suffolk Gentleman, Ipswich, 1795.

ANONYMOUS, MONEY and its Vicissitudes. (See S. Bailey), London, 1837.

ANONYMOUS, OUTLINES of Political Economy, London, 1832.

ANONYMOUS, OBSERVATIONS on certain verbal disputes in Political Economy, London, 1821.

ANONYMOUS, PERILS, The, of the Nation, London, 1843.

ANONYMOUS, PRINCIPLES, Essential, of the Wealth of Nations, London, 1797.

ANONYMOUS, REASONS for the late increase of the Poor Rate, London, 1777.

ANONYMOUS, REASONS for a limited Exportation of Wool, London, 1677.

ANONYMOUS, REMARKS on the Commercial Policy of Great Britain, London, 1815.

ANONYMOUS, S. W. A Compendious and Briefe Examination of certayne ordinary complaints of diverse of our countrymen in these our days. (See William Stafford), London, 1581.

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ANONYMOUS, SOURCE, The, and Remedies of the National Difficulties. A letter to Lord John Russell, London, 1821.

ANONYMOUS, THEORY, The, of the Exchanges. The Bank Charter Act of 1844. The abuse of the Metallic Principle to Depreciation, London, 1864.

ANONYMOUS, THOUGHTS, Some, on the interest of money in general, and particularly in the English Funds, London, 1870.

APPIAN, De bellis Civilibus

ASHLEY, Anth., Lord, The Ten Hours' Factory Bill, Speech of the 15th March, London, 1844.

ARISTOTLE, De Republica

AUGIES, Marie, Du crédit public et de son Histoire depuis les temps anciens jus qu' a nos jours, Paris, 1842.

B.

BAILEY, S, A Critical Dissertation, etc., chiefly in reference to the writings of Mr. Ricardo, London, 1825.

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BACON, BANK ACTS. (See Parliamentary Papers)

BANKER, A, The Currency Question reviewed. A letter to the Scotch people by a Banker in England, London, 1845.

BARBON, Nicolas, A Discourse on coining the new money lighter, in answer to Mr. Locke's Considerations, London, 1696.

BARTON, John, Observations on the circumstances which influence the condition of the Labouring Classes of Society, London, 1817.

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BENGAL HURKARU. (See under Newspapers)

BENTHAM, Jeremy, Théorie des peines et des récompenses (d'après des manuscrits inédits, ed. by E. Dumont), Londres, 1811.

BERKELEY, George, The Querist, London, 1750.

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BLANQUI, J. A., Des Classes Ouvrières en France pendant l année, 1848.

BLANQUI, J. A., Cours d'économie industrielle, Paris, 1835-39.

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BROADHURST, J., Political Economy, London, 1842.

BROUGHAM, Henry, An Inquiry into the Colonial Policy of the European Powers, Edinburgh, 1803.

BRUCKNER, Théorie du système animal, Leyden, 1767.

BUCHANAN, David, Inquiry into the Taxation and Commercial Policy of Great Britain, Edinburgh, 1844.

BUCHANAN, David, Smith's Wealth of Nations. With notes and an additional volume, London, 1814.

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BURKE, Edmund, Thoughts and details on Scarcity, London, 1800.

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BUTLER, Hudibras, (?)

C.

CAIRNES, J. E., The Slave Power, London, 1862.

CAMPBELL, George, Modern India, London, 1852.

CANTILLON, Philip, Essai sur la nature du Commerce en général, Amsterdam, 1756.

CANTILLON, Philip, The Analysis of Trade, Commerce, etc. (English translation), London, 1759.

CARD, Ronard de, Falsification des substances sacramentelles

CAREY, H. C., The Slave Trade, Philadelphia, 1853.

CAREY, H. C., Essay on the Rate of Wages, London, 1834.

CARLI, G. R., Notes in his edition of Verri. (See Verri), Milano, 1803.

CAZENOVE, John, Notes in his edition of Malthus' Definitions in Political Economy, London, 1853.

CENSUS. (See Parliamentary Papers)

CHALMERS, Th., On Political Economy, Glasgow, 1832.

CHAMBERLAIN, Jos., Speech at Sanitary Congress, Birmingham. (Times, 15th Jan., 1875.)

CHERBULIEZ, A. E., Riche ou pauvre, Paris, 1841.

COBBETT, William, A History of the Protestant Reformation, Dublin, 1868.

COLINS, H., L'Économie Politique, Paris, 1857.

COLINS, H., Combination (On) of Trades. (See Anon.), London, 1834.

COMMISSIONS. (Children's Employment, on Railways, etc. (See Parl. Papers)

CONGRESS. (International Statistic). Compte rendu, Paris.

CONDILLAC, Le Commerce et le Gouvernement, Paris, 1776.
Reprinted in:
Mélanges de l' Économie Politique. (Ed. Daire et Molinari), Paris, 1847.

CONSIDERATIONS concerning taking off the Bounty on Corn exported. (See Anonymous), London, 1753.

CORBET, Th., An Inquiry into the Causes and Modes of the Wealth of Individuals, London, 1841.

CORBON, C. A., De l'enseignement professionnel, Paris, 1858.

COURCELLE-SENEUIL, J. G., Traité théorique et pratique des entreprises industrielles, Paris, 1857.

CURRENCY Question, The. (See Anon.), London, 1847.

CURRENCY Question, reviewed, The (See Anon.), London, 1845.

CUVIER, J. L. C., Discours sur les Révolutions du Globe. (Ed. Hoefer), Paris, 1863.

D.

DAILY TELEGRAPH. (See Newspapers).

DARWIN, Charles, Origin of Species, London, 1859.

Defence, A, of the landlords and farmers of Great Britain. (See Anon.), London, 1814.

DE QUINCEY, Th., The Logie of Political Economy, London, 1844.

DESCARTES, René, Discours de la Méthode, Paris, 1668.

DEUTSCH - FRANZÖSISCHE JAHRBÜCHER (See Marx and Ruge)

DISCOURSE concerning Trade, etc, Paris, 1844.

DIODORUS SICULUS, Bibliotheca Historica, (See Anonymous), London, 1689.

DISCOURSE on the General Notions of Money, etc. (See Anon.), London, 1695.

DISCOURSE on the necessity of encouraging Mechanick Industry, (See Anon.), London, 1690.

DISSERTATION on the Poor Laws, etc. (See Anon.), London, 1786.

DUNNING, T. J., Trades' Unions and Strikes, London, 1860.

DUPONT, Pierre, Chansons, Paris, 1846.

E.

EAST INDIAN TRADE, etc., (See Anon.), London, 1696.

ECONOMY, Public, Concentrated, (see Anon.), Carlisle, 1833.

ECONOMIST (see under Newspapers)

EDEN, F. M., The State of the Poor, London, 1797.

EMPIRICUS, Sextus, Opera

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[70.][70] We treat here of real Colonies, virgin soils, colonised by free immigrants. The United States are, speaking economically, still only a Colony of Europe. Besides, to this category belong also such old plantations as those in which the abolition of slavery has completely altered the earlier conditions.

[71.][71] Wakefield's few glimpses on the subject of Modern Colonisation are fully anticipated by Mirabeau Père, the physiocrat, and even much earlier by English economists.

[72.][72] Later, it became a temporary necessity in the international competitive struggle. But, whatever its motive, the consequences remain the same.

[73.][73] A negro is a negro. In certain circumstances he becomes a slave. A mule is a machine for spinning cotton. Only under certain circumstances does it become capital. Outside these circumstances, it is no more capital than gold is intrinsically money, or sugar is the price of sugar.... Capital is a social relation of production. It is a historical relation of production. (Karl Marx, "Lohnarbeit und Kapital." N. Rh. Z. No. 266, April 7, 1849.)

[74.][74] E.g. Wakefield: England and America, vol. ii., p. 33.

[75.][75] l. c., p. 17.

[76.][76] l. c., vol. i., p. 18.

[77.][77] l. c., pp. 42, 43, 44.

[78.][78] l. c., vol. ii., p. 5.

[79.][79] "Land, to be an element of colonization, must not only be waste, but it must be public property, liable to be converted into private property." (l. c. Vol. II., p. 125.)

[80.][80] l. c. Vol. I. p. 24.

[81.][81] l. c. pp. 21, 22.

[82.][82] l. c., Vol. II., p. 116.

[83.][83] l. c., Vol. I., p. 131

[84.][84] l. c., Vol. II., p. 5.

[85.][85] Merivale, l. c., Vol. II., pp. 235-314 passim. Even the mild, free-trade, vulgar economist, Molinari, says: "Dans les colonies où l'esclavage a été aboli sans que le travail forcé se trouvait remplacé par une quantité équivalente de travail libre, on a vu s'opérer la contre-partie du fait qui se réalise tous les jours sous nos yeux. On a vu les simples travailleurs exploiter à leur tour les entrepreneurs d'industrie, exiger d'eux des salaires hors de toute proportion avec la part légitime qui leur revenait dans le produit. Les planteurs, ne pouvant obtenir de leurs sucres un prix suffisant pour couvrir la hausse de salaire, ont été obligés de fournir l'excédant, d'abord sur leurs profits, ensuite sur leurs capitaux mêmes. Une foule de planteurs ont été ruinés de la sorte, d'autres ont fermé leurs ateliers pour échapper à une ruine imminente.... Sans doute, il vaut mieux voir périr des accumulations de capitaux que des générations d'hommes [how generous of Mr. Molinaril]: mais ne vaudrait-il pas mieux que ni les uns ni les autres périssent?" (Molinari l. c. pp. 51, 52.) Mr. Molinari, Mr. Molinaril What then becomes of the ten commandments, of Moses and the prophets, of the law of supply and demand, if in Europe the "entrepreneur" can cut down the labourer's legitimate part, and in the West Indies, the labourer can cut down the entrepreneur's? And what, if you please, is this "legitimate part," which on your own showing the capitalist in Europe daily neglects to pay? Over yonder, in the colonies where the labourers are so "simple" as to "exploit" the capitalist, Mr. Molinari feels a strong itching to set the law of supply and demand, that works elsewhere automatically, on the right road by means of the police.

[86.][86] Wakefield, l. c., Vol. II., p. 52.

[87.][87] l. c. pp. 191, 192.

[88.][88] l. c., Vol. I., pp. 47, 246.

[89.][89] "C'est, ajoutez-vous, grâce à l'appropriation du sol et des capitaux que l'homme, qui n' a que ses bras, trouve de l'occupation, et se fait un revenu...c'est au contraire, grâce à l'appropriation individuelle du sol qu'il se trouve des hommes n'ayant que leurs bras.... Quand vous mettez un homme dans le vide, vous vous emparez de l'atmosphère. Ainsi faites-vous, quand vous vous emparez du sol.... C'est le mettre dans le vide de richesses, pour ne le laisser vivre qu'à votre volonté." (Colins, l. c., t. III., pp. 268-271, passim.)

[90.][90] Wakefield, l. c., Vol. II., p. 192.

[91.][91] l. c., p. 45.

[92.][92] As soon as Australia became her own law-giver, she passed, of course, laws favourable to the settlers, but the squandering of the land, already accomplished by the English Government, stands in the way. "The first and main object at which the new Land Act of 1862 aims is to give increased facilities for the settlement of the people." (The Land Law of Victoria, by the Hon. O. G. Duffy, Minister of Public Lands. Lond. 1862.)