The Online Library of Liberty

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• Translator’s Note
• Acknowledgments
• Introduction
• Principles of Politics
• Book I: On Received Ideas About the Scope of Political Authority
• Chapter One: the Purpose of This Work
• Chapter Two: Rousseau’s First Principle On the Origin of Political Authority
• Chapter Three: Rousseau’s Second Principle On the Scope of Political Authority
• Chapter Four: Rousseau’s Arguments For Boundless Political Authority
• Chapter Five: That Rousseau’s Error Comes From His Wanting to Distinguish the Prerogatives of Society From Those of the Government
• Chapter Six: the Consequences of Rousseau’s Theory
• Chapter Seven: On Hobbes
• Chapter Eight: Hobbes’s Opinion Reproduced
• Chapter Nine: On the Inconsistency With Which Rousseau Has Been Reproached
• Book II: On the Principles to Replace Received Ideas On the Extent of Political Authority
• Chapter One: On the Limitation of Political Authority
• Chapter Two: On the Rights of the Majority
• Chapter Three: On the Organization of Government When Political Authority Is Not Limited
• Chapter Four: Objection to the Possibility of Limiting Political Authority
• Chapter Five: On the Limits of Political Authority Restricted to a Minimum
• Chapter Six: On Individual Rights When Political Authority Is Thus Restricted
• Chapter Seven: On the Principle of Utility Substituted For the Idea of Individual Rights
• Book III: On Arguments and Hypotheses In Favor of the Extension of Political Authority
• Chapter One: On the Extension of Political Authority Beyond Its Necessary Minimum, On the Grounds of Utility
• Chapter Two: On the Hypotheses Without Which the Extension of Political Authority Is Illegitimate
• Chapter Three: Are Governors Necessarily Less Liable to Error Than the Governed?
• Chapter Four: Are Governmental Mistakes Less Dangerous Than Those of Individuals?
• Chapter Five: On the Nature of the Means Political Authority Can Use On the Grounds of Utility
• Book IV: On the Proliferation of the Laws
• Chapter One: Natural Causes of the Proliferation of the Laws
• Chapter Two: the Idea Which Usually Develops About the Effects Which the Proliferation of the Laws Has and the Falsity of That Idea
• Chapter Three: That the Principal Benefit Which Supporters of Democratic Government Are Looking For In the Proliferation of the Laws Does Not Exist
• Chapter Four: On the Corruption Which the Proliferation of the Laws Causes Among the Agents of the Government
• Chapter Five: Another Drawback of the Proliferation of the Laws
• Book V: On Arbitrary Measures
• Chapter One: On Arbitrary Measures and Why People Have Always Protested Less About Them Than About Attacks On Property
• Chapter Two: On the Grounds For Arbitrary Measures and the Prerogative of Preventing Crimes
• Chapter Three: Specious Argument In Support of Arbitrary Government
• Chapter Four: On the Effect of Arbitrary Measures In Terms of Moral Life, Industry, and the Duration of Governments
• Chapter Five: On the Influence of Arbitrary Rule On the Governors Themselves
• Book VI: On Coups D’etat
• Chapter One: On the Admiration For Coups D’etat
• Chapter Two: On Coups D’etat In Countries With Written Constitutions
• Chapter Three: the Condition Necessary to Stop Constitutional Violations
• Book VII: On Freedom of Thought
• Chapter One: the Object of the Following Three Books
• Chapter Two: On Freedom of Thought
• Chapter Three: On the Expression of Thought
• Chapter Four: Continuation of the Same Subject
• Chapter Five: Continuation of the Same Subject
• Chapter Six: Some Necessary Explication
• Chapter Seven: Final Observations
• Book VIII: On Religious Freedom
• Chapter One: Why Religion Was So Often Attacked By the Men of the Enlightenment
• Chapter Two: On Civil Intolerance
• Chapter Three: On the Proliferation of Sects 5
• Chapter Four: On the Maintenance of Religion By Government Against the Spirit of Inquiry
• Chapter Five: On the Reestablishment of Religion By Government
• Chapter Six: On the Axiom That the People Must Have a Religion
• Chapter Seven: On the Utilitarian Case For Religion
• Chapter Eight: Another Effect of the Axiom That the People Must Have a Religion
• Chapter Nine: On Tolerance When Government Gets Involved
• Chapter Ten: On the Persecution of a Religious Belief
• Book IX: On Legal Safeguards
• Chapter One: On the Independence of the Courts
• Chapter Two: On the Abridgment of Due Process
• Chapter Three: On Punishments
• Chapter Four: On the Prerogative of Exercising Mercy
• Book X: On the Action of Government With Regard to Property
• Chapter One: the Purpose of This Book
• Chapter Two: the Natural Division of the Inhabitants of the Same Territory Into Two Classes
• Chapter Three: On Property
• Chapter Four: On the Status Property Should Occupy In Political Institutions
• Chapter Five: On Examples Drawn From Antiquity
• Chapter Six: On the Proprietorial Spirit
• Chapter Seven: That Territorial Property Alone Brings Together All the Advantages of Property
• Chapter Eight: On Property In Public Funds
• Chapter Nine: On the Amount of Landed Property Which Society Has the Right to Insist Upon For the Exercise of Political Rights
• Chapter Ten: That Owners Have No Interest In Abusing Power Vis-à-vis Nonowners
• Chapter Eleven: On Hereditary Privileges Compared to Property
• Chapter Twelve: Necessary Comment
• Chapter Thirteen: On the Best Way of Giving Proprietors a Large Political Influence
• Chapter Fourteen: On the Action of Government On Property
• Chapter Fifteen: On Laws Which Favor the Accumulation of Property In the Same Hands
• Chapter Sixteen: On Laws Which Enforce the Wider Spreading of Property
• Book XI: On Taxation
• Chapter One: the Object of This Book
• Chapter Two: the First Right of the Governed With Regard to Taxation
• Chapter Three: the Second Right of the Governed With Regard to Taxation
• Chapter Four: On Various Types of Taxes
• Chapter Five: How Taxation Becomes Contrary to Individual Rights
• Chapter Six: That Taxes Bearing On Capital Are Contrary to Individual Rights
• Chapter Seven: That the Interest of the State In Matters of Taxation Is Consistent With Individual Rights
• Chapter Eight: an Incontestable Axiom
• Chapter Nine: the Drawback of Excessive Taxation
• Chapter Ten: a Further Drawback of Excessive Taxation
• Book XII: On Government Jurisdiction Over Economic Activity and Population
• Chapter One: Preliminary Observation
• Chapter Two: On Legitimate Political Jurisdiction Vis-à-vis Economic Activity
• Chapter Three: That There Are Two Branches of Government Intervention With Regard to Economic Activity
• Chapter Four: On Privileges and Prohibitions
• Chapter Five: On the General Effect of Prohibitions
• Chapter Six: On Things Which Push Governments In This Mistaken Direction
• Chapter Seven: On the Supports Offered By Government
• Chapter Eight: On the Equilibrium of Production
• Chapter Nine: a Final Example of the Adverse Effects of Government Intervention
• Chapter Ten: Conclusions From the Above Reflections
• Chapter Eleven: On Government Measures In Relation to Population
• Book XIII: On War
• Chapter One: From What Point of View War Can Be Considered As Having Advantages
• Chapter Two: On the Pretexts For War
• Chapter Three: the Effect of the Politics of War On the Domestic Condition of Nations
• Chapter Four: On Safeguards Against the War Mania of Governments
• Chapter Five: On the Mode of Forming and Maintaining Armies
• Book XIV: On Government Action On Enlightenment
• Chapter One: Questions to Be Dealt With In This Book
• Chapter Two: On the Value Attributed to Errors
• Chapter Three: On Government In Support of Truth
• Chapter Four: On Government Protection of Enlightenment
• Chapter Five: On the Upholding of Morality
• Chapter Six: On the Contribution of Government to Education
• Chapter Seven: On Government Duties Vis-à-vis Enlightenment
• Book XV: The Outcome of Preceding Discussion Relative to the Action of Government
• Chapter One: the Outcome of the Preceding Discussion
• Chapter Two: On Three Pernicious Ideas
• Chapter Three: On Ideas of Uniformity
• Chapter Four: Application of This Principle to the Composition of Representative Assemblies
• Chapter Five: Further Thoughts On the Preceding Chapter
• Chapter Six: On Ideas of Stability
• Chapter Seven: On Premature Ameliorations
• Chapter Eight: On a False Way of Reasoning
• Book XVI: On Political Authority In the Ancient World
• Chapter One: Why Among the Ancients Political Authority Could Be More Extensive Than In Modern Times
• Chapter Two: the First Difference Between the Social State of the Ancients and That of Modern Times
• Chapter Three: the Second Difference
• Chapter Four: the Third Difference
• Chapter Five: the Fourth Difference
• Chapter Six: the Fifth Difference
• Chapter Seven: the Result of These Differences Between the Ancients and the Moderns
• Chapter Eight: Modern Imitators of the Republics of Antiquity
• Book XVII: On the True Principles of Freedom
• Chapter One: On the Inviolability of the True Principles of Freedom
• Chapter Two: That the Circumscription of Political Authority, Within Its Precise Limits, Does Not Tend to Weaken the Necessary Action of the Government
• Chapter Three: Final Thoughts On Civil Freedom and Political Freedom 3
• Chapter Four: Apologia For Despotism By Louis Xiv
• Book XVIII: On the Duties of Individuals to Political Authority
• Chapter One: Difficulties With Regard to the Question of Resistance
• Chapter Two: On Obedience to the Law
• Chapter Three: On Revolutions
• Chapter Four: On the Duties of Enlightened Men During Revolutions
• Chapter Five: Continuation of the Same Subject
• Chapter Six: On the Duties of Enlightened Men After Violent Revolutions
• Additions to the Work Entitled Principles of Politics Applicable to All Governments

chapter one

The Purpose of This Book

We have ruled out in this work any research into the constitution of States and the organization of their political powers. Nevertheless, we cannot absolve ourselves from dealing with the place that property should have in government concerns since we have to determine what the relations between government and property ought to be. We are therefore obliged to put forward some ideas which derive from the first principles of human association. Since these ideas relate equally, however, to all forms of institution, they will not draw us at all into the discussions we want to avoid.

People may be astonished that we should refute in some detail opinions which today seem generally abandoned. Our purpose, however, is not to write simply on opinions which may enjoy favor today, but rather to attack false opinions to the extent that we find them on our way.

Moreover, we know how quickly men go from one view to another, especially in France. Such error as one [200] does not deign to reply to at such a time, because one thinks it without supporters, can at the first emergency show up, resting on arguments one had regarded as forever rebuffed.

In addition, there are among us a rather large number of writers always at the service of the dominant system. We have already seen them go from unbridled demagogy to the opposite exaggeration. Nothing would be less astonishing on their part than a new apostasy. These are real lansquenets,1 but without the courage. Disavowals cost them nothing. Absurdities do not check them, because for them opinions are only calculation. They search everywhere for a power whose wishes they can reduce to principles. Their zeal is all the more active and tireless in that it dispenses with their conviction.

[1. ][The lansquenets were German mercenary footsoldiers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Constant explicitly says the writers in question are cowards and implicitly that they are low-born and mercenary. Translator’s note]