The Online Library of Liberty

A project of Liberty Fund, Inc.

• Preface
• Chapter I: Barter
• Want of Coincidence In Barter.
• Want of a Measure of Value.
• Want of Means of Subdivision.
• Chapter II: Exchange
• Utility and Value Are Not Intrinsic.
• Value Expresses Patio of Exchange.
• Chapter III: The Functions of Money
• A Standard of Value.
• A Store of Value.
• Separation of Functions.
• Chapter IV: Early History of Money
• Currency In the Hunting State.
• Currency In the Pastoral State.
• Articles of Ornament As Currency.
• Currency In the Agricultural State.
• Manufactured and Miscellaneous Articles As Currency.
• Chapter V: Qualities of the Material of Money
• 1. Utility and Value.
• 2. Portability.
• 3. Indestructibility.
• 4. Homogeneity.
• 5. Divisibility.
• 6. Stability of Value.
• 7. Cognizability.
• Chapter VI: The Metals As Money
• Iron.
• Lead.
• Tin.
• Copper.
• Silver.
• Gold.
• Platinum.
• Nickel.
• Other Metals.
• Alloys of Metals.
• Chapter VII: Coins
• The Invention of Coining.
• What Is a Coin?
• Various Forms of Coins.
• The Best Form For Coins.
• Coins As Works of Art.
• Historical Coins.
• The Royal Attribute of Coining.
• Chapter VIII: The Principles of Circulation
• The Standard Unit of Value.
• Coin, Money of Account, and Unit of Value.
• Standard and Token Money.
• Metallic and Nominal Values of Coins.
• Legal Tender.
• The Force of Habit In the Circulation of Money.
• Gresham's Law.
• Extension of Gresham's Law.
• Chapter IX: Systems of Metallic Money
• Currency By Weight.
• Unrestricted Currency By Tale.
• Single Legal Tender System.
• Multiple Legal Tender System.
• Composite Legal Tender.
• Chapter X: The English System of Metallic Currency
• English Gold Coin.
• English Silver Coin.
• English Bronze Coinage.
• Deficiency of Weight of the English Gold Coin.
• Withdrawal of Light Gold Coin.
• Supply of Gold Coin.
• Supply of Silver Coin.
• The Royal Mint.
• Chapter XI: Fractional Currency
• Billon Coin.
• Composite Coin.
• Bronze Coin.
• English Bronze Coin.
• Weight of the Currency.
• Nickel, Manganese, Aluminium, and Other Metals and Alloys.
• Chapter XII: The Battle of the Standards
• The Double Standard.
• Compensatory Action.
• The Demonetization of Silver.
• Disadvantages of the Double Standard.
• The Monetary Systems of the World.
• Chapter XIII: Technical Matters Relating to Coinage
• The Alloys In Coin.
• The Size of Coins.
• The Wear of Coin.
• Methods of Counting Coins.
• Cost of the Metallic Currency.
• Chapter XIV: International Money
• Advantages of International Money.
• Disadvantages of International Money.
• Conflict of Monetary Systems.
• International Monetary Negotiations.
• Decimalization of English Money.
• The Future American Dollar.
• German Monetary Reform.
• Systems of Fractional Money.
• Final Selection of the Unit of International Money.
• Chapter XV: The Mechanism of Exchange
• Progressive Development of the Methods of Exchange.
• Representative Money.
• Cheque and Clearing System.
• Chapter XVI: Representative Money
• Early History of Representative Money.
• Reasons For the Use of Representative Money.
• Inconvenience of Metallic Money.
• The Weight of Currency.
• Saving of Interest.
• Chapter XVII: The Nature and Varieties of Promissory Notes
• Specific Deposit Warrant.
• General Deposit Warrant.
• Difference Between a Special and a General Promise.
• Pecuniary Promissory Notes.
• Principles of the Circulation of Representative Money.
• Chapter XVIII: Methods of Regulating a Paper Currency
• 1. Simple Deposit.
• 2. Partial Deposit.
• 3. Minimum Reserve.
• 4. Proportional Reserve.
• 5. Maximum Issue.
• 6. Elastic Limit.
• 7. Documentary Reserve.
• 8. Real Property Reserve.
• 9. Regulation By the Foreign Exchanges.
• 10. Free Issue System.
• 11. The Gold Par Method.
• 12. Convertibility By Revenue Payments.
• 13. Deferred Convertibility.
• 14. Inconvertible Paper Money.
• Over Issue of Paper Money.
• Want of Elasticity of Paper Money.
• Chapter XIX: Credit Documents
• Measurement of Credit.
• Bank-notes.
• Cheques.
• Bills of Exchange.
• Interest-bearing Documents.
• Definition of Money.
• Chapter XX: Book Credit and the Banking System
• Single Bank System.
• System of Two Banks.
• Complex Bank System.
• Branch Bank System.
• Bank Agency System.
• London Agency System.
• Country Clearing System.
• Chapter XXI: The Clearing-house System
• Transaction of Business At the London Clearing House.
• Manchester Clearing House.
• New York Clearing House.
• Extension of the Clearing System.
• Advantages of the Cheque and Clearing System.
• Proportion of Cash Payments.
• Cases to Which the Clearing System Is Inapplicable.
• Chapter XXII: The Cheque Bank
• Relation of the Cheque Bank to Other Banks.
• The Cheque Bank As a Monetary Agent.
• Payment of Wages By Cheques.
• The Cheque Bank As a Savings Bank.
• Results of the Cheque Bank System.
• Chapter XXIII: Foreign Bills of Exchange
• Origin and Nature of Bills of Exchange.
• Trade In Foreign Bills.
• The World's Clearing House.
• Centralization of Financial Transactions In London.
• Representation of Foreign Bankers In London.
• Chapter XXIV: The Bank of England and the Money Market
• Expansion of Trade.
• Competition of Bankers.
• The Bank Charter Act of 1844.
• The Free-banking School.
• Possibility of Over-issue.
• The Right of Coining Bank Notes.
• Scotch and English Banking.
• Cash Reserves of Bankers.
• Remedy For the Sensitiveness of the Money Market.
• Chapter XXV: A Tabular Standard of Value
• Corn Rents.
• A Multiple Legal Tender.
• Lowe's Proposed Table of Reference.
• Poulett Scrope's Tabular Standard of Value.
• Difficulties of the Scheme.
• Chapter XXVI: The Quantity of Money Needed By a Nation
• Quantity of Work to Be Done By Money.
• Efficiency of the Currency.
• Effects of the Cheque and Clearing System.
• Conclusion.

7. Cognizability.

By this name we may denote the capability of a substance for being easily recognized and distinguished from all other substances. As a medium of exchange, money has to be continually handed about, and it will occasion great trouble if every person receiving currency has to scrutinize, weigh, and test it. If it requires any skill to discriminate good money from bad, poor ignorant people are sure to be imposed upon. Hence the medium of exchange should have certain distinct marks which nobody can mistake. Precious stones, even if in other respects good as money, could not be so used, because only a skilled lapidary can surely distinguish between true and imitation gems.

Under cognizability we may properly include what has been aptly called impressibility, namely, the capability of a substance to receive such an impression, seal, or design, as shall establish its character as current money of certain value. We might more simply say, that the material of money should be coinable, so that a portion, being once issued according to proper regulations with the impress of the state, may be known to all as good and legal currency, equal in weight, size, and value to all similarly marked currency. We shall afterwards consider more minutely what is involved in the manufacture of a good coin.

Chapter VI

The Metals as Money

It need not be pointed out in detail that, though the numerous commodities mentioned in Chapter IV. possess, in a greater or less degree, the qualities essential to the material of money, they cannot for a moment compare in this respect with many of the metal. Some of the metals seem to be marked out by nature as most fit of all substances for employment as money, at least when acting as a medium of exchange and a store of value. Accordingly, we find that gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, and iron have been more or less extensively in circulation in all historical ages. So closely have silver and copper become associated in people's minds with their use as money, that we find their names adopted as the names of money. In Greek, means equally silver, silver coin, and money generally; in Latin, aes is copper, bronze, or brass, and also money and wages; in French, argent is both silver and money. The same association of meanings could be pointed out in many other languages, including our own. Though our pence are now of bronze we still speak of them as coppers.

With the exception of iron, the principal metals are peculiarly indestructible, and undergo little or no deterioration when hoarded up or handed about. Each kind of metal is approximately homogeneous, piece differing from piece in nothing but weight, the differences of fineness being ascertained and allowed for in the case of gold and silver. The metals are also perfectly divisible, either by the chisel or the crucible, and yet a second melting will always reunite the pieces again with little cost or loss of material. Almost of them possess the properties of cognizability and impressibility in the highest degree. Each metal has its characteristic colour, density, and hardness, so that it is easy for a person with very slight experience to distinguish one metal from another. Their malleability enables us to roll, cut, and hammer them into any required form, and to impress a permanent design by means of dies. With the exception of porcelain coins, which have been used in Siam, I am not aware that coins have ever been made of any substance except metal.

In respect to steadiness of value the metals are probably less satisfactory, regarded as a standard of value, than many other commodities, such as corn. From the earliest ages metals must have been most highly valued, as we may learn from the way in which they are esteemed by savages in the present day. But their value has suffered and is suffering an almost continuous decline, owing to the progress of industry, and the discovery of new mechanical and chemical means for their extraction. Even the order of their values becomes changed. According to Mr. Gladstone, iron was, in the Homeric age, much more valued than chalkos, or copper, which latter was then the most common and useful metal. Lead was little known or valued, but gold, silver, and tin held the same place at the head of the list which they hold at the present, day.