The Online Library of Liberty

A project of Liberty Fund, Inc.

• Preface
• Chapter I: Barter
• Want of Coincidence In Barter.
• Want of a Measure of Value.
• Want of Means of Subdivision.
• Chapter II: Exchange
• Utility and Value Are Not Intrinsic.
• Value Expresses Patio of Exchange.
• Chapter III: The Functions of Money
• A Standard of Value.
• A Store of Value.
• Separation of Functions.
• Chapter IV: Early History of Money
• Currency In the Hunting State.
• Currency In the Pastoral State.
• Articles of Ornament As Currency.
• Currency In the Agricultural State.
• Manufactured and Miscellaneous Articles As Currency.
• Chapter V: Qualities of the Material of Money
• 1. Utility and Value.
• 2. Portability.
• 3. Indestructibility.
• 4. Homogeneity.
• 5. Divisibility.
• 6. Stability of Value.
• 7. Cognizability.
• Chapter VI: The Metals As Money
• Iron.
• Lead.
• Tin.
• Copper.
• Silver.
• Gold.
• Platinum.
• Nickel.
• Other Metals.
• Alloys of Metals.
• Chapter VII: Coins
• The Invention of Coining.
• What Is a Coin?
• Various Forms of Coins.
• The Best Form For Coins.
• Coins As Works of Art.
• Historical Coins.
• The Royal Attribute of Coining.
• Chapter VIII: The Principles of Circulation
• The Standard Unit of Value.
• Coin, Money of Account, and Unit of Value.
• Standard and Token Money.
• Metallic and Nominal Values of Coins.
• Legal Tender.
• The Force of Habit In the Circulation of Money.
• Gresham's Law.
• Extension of Gresham's Law.
• Chapter IX: Systems of Metallic Money
• Currency By Weight.
• Unrestricted Currency By Tale.
• Single Legal Tender System.
• Multiple Legal Tender System.
• Composite Legal Tender.
• Chapter X: The English System of Metallic Currency
• English Gold Coin.
• English Silver Coin.
• English Bronze Coinage.
• Deficiency of Weight of the English Gold Coin.
• Withdrawal of Light Gold Coin.
• Supply of Gold Coin.
• Supply of Silver Coin.
• The Royal Mint.
• Chapter XI: Fractional Currency
• Billon Coin.
• Composite Coin.
• Bronze Coin.
• English Bronze Coin.
• Weight of the Currency.
• Nickel, Manganese, Aluminium, and Other Metals and Alloys.
• Chapter XII: The Battle of the Standards
• The Double Standard.
• Compensatory Action.
• The Demonetization of Silver.
• Disadvantages of the Double Standard.
• The Monetary Systems of the World.
• Chapter XIII: Technical Matters Relating to Coinage
• The Alloys In Coin.
• The Size of Coins.
• The Wear of Coin.
• Methods of Counting Coins.
• Cost of the Metallic Currency.
• Chapter XIV: International Money
• Advantages of International Money.
• Disadvantages of International Money.
• Conflict of Monetary Systems.
• International Monetary Negotiations.
• Decimalization of English Money.
• The Future American Dollar.
• German Monetary Reform.
• Systems of Fractional Money.
• Final Selection of the Unit of International Money.
• Chapter XV: The Mechanism of Exchange
• Progressive Development of the Methods of Exchange.
• Representative Money.
• Cheque and Clearing System.
• Chapter XVI: Representative Money
• Early History of Representative Money.
• Reasons For the Use of Representative Money.
• Inconvenience of Metallic Money.
• The Weight of Currency.
• Saving of Interest.
• Chapter XVII: The Nature and Varieties of Promissory Notes
• Specific Deposit Warrant.
• General Deposit Warrant.
• Difference Between a Special and a General Promise.
• Pecuniary Promissory Notes.
• Principles of the Circulation of Representative Money.
• Chapter XVIII: Methods of Regulating a Paper Currency
• 1. Simple Deposit.
• 2. Partial Deposit.
• 3. Minimum Reserve.
• 4. Proportional Reserve.
• 5. Maximum Issue.
• 6. Elastic Limit.
• 7. Documentary Reserve.
• 8. Real Property Reserve.
• 9. Regulation By the Foreign Exchanges.
• 10. Free Issue System.
• 11. The Gold Par Method.
• 12. Convertibility By Revenue Payments.
• 13. Deferred Convertibility.
• 14. Inconvertible Paper Money.
• Over Issue of Paper Money.
• Want of Elasticity of Paper Money.
• Chapter XIX: Credit Documents
• Measurement of Credit.
• Bank-notes.
• Cheques.
• Bills of Exchange.
• Interest-bearing Documents.
• Definition of Money.
• Chapter XX: Book Credit and the Banking System
• Single Bank System.
• System of Two Banks.
• Complex Bank System.
• Branch Bank System.
• Bank Agency System.
• London Agency System.
• Country Clearing System.
• Chapter XXI: The Clearing-house System
• Transaction of Business At the London Clearing House.
• Manchester Clearing House.
• New York Clearing House.
• Extension of the Clearing System.
• Advantages of the Cheque and Clearing System.
• Proportion of Cash Payments.
• Cases to Which the Clearing System Is Inapplicable.
• Chapter XXII: The Cheque Bank
• Relation of the Cheque Bank to Other Banks.
• The Cheque Bank As a Monetary Agent.
• Payment of Wages By Cheques.
• The Cheque Bank As a Savings Bank.
• Results of the Cheque Bank System.
• Chapter XXIII: Foreign Bills of Exchange
• Origin and Nature of Bills of Exchange.
• Trade In Foreign Bills.
• The World's Clearing House.
• Centralization of Financial Transactions In London.
• Representation of Foreign Bankers In London.
• Chapter XXIV: The Bank of England and the Money Market
• Expansion of Trade.
• Competition of Bankers.
• The Bank Charter Act of 1844.
• The Free-banking School.
• Possibility of Over-issue.
• The Right of Coining Bank Notes.
• Scotch and English Banking.
• Cash Reserves of Bankers.
• Remedy For the Sensitiveness of the Money Market.
• Chapter XXV: A Tabular Standard of Value
• Corn Rents.
• A Multiple Legal Tender.
• Lowe's Proposed Table of Reference.
• Poulett Scrope's Tabular Standard of Value.
• Difficulties of the Scheme.
• Chapter XXVI: The Quantity of Money Needed By a Nation
• Quantity of Work to Be Done By Money.
• Efficiency of the Currency.
• Effects of the Cheque and Clearing System.
• Conclusion.

Value expresses Patio of Exchange.

We must now fix our attention upon the fact that, in every act of exchange, a definite quantity of one substance is exchanged for a definite quantity of another. The things bartered may be most various in character, and may be variously measured. We may give a weight of silver for a length of rope, or a superficial extent of carpet, or a number of gallons of wine, or a certain horsepower of force, or conveyance over a certain distance. The quantities to be measured may be expressed in terms of space, time, mass, force, energy, heat, or any other physical units. Yet each exchange will consist in giving so many units of one thing for so many units of another, each measured in its appropriate way.

Every act of exchange thus presents itself to us in the form of a ratio between two numbers. The word value is commonly used, and if, at current rates, one ton of copper exchanges for ten tons of bar iron, it is usual to say that the value of copper is ten times that of the iron, weight for weight. For our purpose, at least, this use of the word value is only an indirect mode of expressing a ratio. When we say that gold is more valuable than silver, we mean that, as commonly exchanged, the weight of silver exceeds that of the gold given for it. If the value of gold rises compared with that of silver, then still more silver is given for the same quantity of gold. But value like utility is no intrinsic quality of a thing; it is an extrinsic accident or relation. We should never speak of the value of a thing at all without having in our minds the other thing in regard to which it is valued. The very same substance may rise and fall in value at the same time. If, in exchange for a given weight of gold, I can get more silver, but less copper, than I used to do, the value of gold has risen with respect to silver, but fallen with respect to copper. It is evident that an intrinsic property of a thing cannot both increase and decrease at the same time; therefore value must be a mere relation or accident of a thing as regards other things and the persons needing them.

Chapter III

The Functions of Money

We have seen that three inconveniences attach to the practice of simple barter, namely, the improbability, of coincidence between persons wanting and persons possessing; the complexity of exchanges, which are not made in terms of one single substance; and the need of some means of dividing and distributing valuable articles. Money remedies these inconveniences, and thereby performs two distinct functions of high importance, acting as—

• (1) A medium of exchange.
• (2) A common measure of value.

In its first form money is simply any commodity esteemed by all persons, any article of food, clothing, or ornament which any person will readily receive, and which, therefore, every person desires to have by him in greater or less quantity, in order that he may have the means of procuring necessaries of life at any time. Although many commodities may be capable of performing this function of a medium more or less perfectly, some one article will usually be selected, as money par excellence, by custom or the force of circumstances. This article will then begin to be used as a measure of value. Being accustomed to exchange things frequently for sums of money, people learn the value of other articles in terms of money, so that all exchanges will most readily be calculated and adjusted by comparison of the money values of the things exchanged.