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• Preface
• Key to Abbreviations and References
• General Introduction
• The Text and Apparatus
• Advertisement a
• Advertisement to the Fourth Edition
• Introduction and Plan of the Work
• [i] Book I: Of the Causes of Improvement In the Productive Powers of Labour, and of the Order According to Which Its Produce Is Naturally Distributed Among the Different Ranks of the People
• [i.i] Chapter I: Of the Division of Labour
• [i.ii] Chapter II: Of the Principle Which Gives Occasion to the Division of Labour
• [i.iii] Chapter III: That the Division of Labour Is Limited By the Extent of the Market 1
• [i.iv] Chapter IV: Of the Origin and Use of Money 1
• [i.v] Chapter V: Of the Real and Nominal Price of Commodities, Or of Their Price In Labour, and Their Price In Money
• [i.vi] Chapter VI: Of the Component Parts of the Price of Commodities
• [i.vii] Chapter VII: Of the Natural and Market Price of Commodities 1
• [i.viii] Chapter VIII: Of the Wages of Labour
• [i.ix] Chapter IX: Of the Profits of Stock
• [i.x.a] Chapter X: Of Wages and Profit In the Different Employments of Labour and Stock
• [i.x.b] Part I: Inequalities Arising From the Nature of the Employments Themselves
• [i.x.c] Part II: Inequalities Occasioned By the Policy of Europe
• [i.xi.a] Chapter XI: Of the Rent of Land
• [i.xi.b] Part I: Of the Produce of Land Which Always Affords Rent
• [i.xi.c] Part II: Of the Produce of Land Which Sometimes Does, and Sometimes Does Not, Afford Rent
• [i.xi.d] Part III: Of the Variations In the Proportion Between the Respective Values of That Sort of Produce Which Always Affords Rent, and of That Which Sometimes Does, and Sometimes Does Not, Afford Rent
• Digression Concerning the Variations In the Value of Silver During the Course of the Four Last Centuries
• [i.xi.e] First Period
• [i.xi.f] Second Period
• [i.xi.g] Third Period
• [i.xi.h] Variations In the Proportion Between the Respective Values of Gold and Silver
• [i.xi.i] Grounds of the Suspicion That the Value of Silver Still Continues to Decrease
• [i.xi.j] Different Effects of the Progress of Improvement Upon the Real Price of Three Different Sorts of Rude Produce
• [i.xi.k] First Sort
• [i.xi.l] Second Sort
• [i.xi.m] Third Sort
• [i.xi.n] Conclusion of the Digression Concerning the Variations In the Value of Silver
• [i.xi.o] Effects of the Progress of Improvement Upon the Real Price of Manufactures
• [i.xi.p] Conclusion of the Chapter
• [ii] Book II: Of the Nature, Accumulation, and Employment of Stock
• Introduction
• [ii.i] Chapter I: Of the Division of Stock
• [ii.ii] Chapter II: Of Money Considered As a Particular Branch of the General Stock of the Society, Or of the Expence of Maintaining the National Capital
• [ii.iii] Chapter III: Of the Accumulation of Capital, Or of Productive and Unproductive Labour
• [ii.iv] Chapter IV: Of Stock Lent At Interest
• [ii.v] Chapter V: Of the Different Employment of Capitals
• [iii] Book III: Of the Different Progress of Opulence In Different Nations
• [iii.i] Chapter I: Of the Natural Progress of Opulence
• [iii.ii] Chapter II: Of the Discouragement of Agriculture In the Antient State of Europe After the Fall of the Roman Empire 1
• [iii.iii] Chapter III: Of the Rise and Progress of Cities and Towns, After the Fall of the Roman Empire
• [iii.iv] Chapter IV: How the Commerce of the Towns Contributed to the Improvement of the Country
• [iv] Book IV: Of Systems of Political Oeconomy
• Introduction
• [iv.i] Chapter I: Of the Principle of the Commercial, Or Mercantile System 1
• [iv.ii] Chapter II: Of Restraints Upon the Importation a From Foreign Countries of Such Goods a As Can Be Produced At Home
• [iv.iii] Chapter III: Of the Extraordinary Restraints Upon the Importation of Goods of Almost All Kinds, From Those Countries With Which the Balance Is Supposed to Be Disadvantageous
• [iv.iii.a] Part I: Of the Unreasonableness of Those Restraints Even Upon the Principles of the Commercial System a
• [iv.iii.b] Digression Concerning Banks of Deposit, Particularly Concerning That of Amsterdam 1
• [iv.iii.c] Part II: Of the Unreasonableness of Those Extraordinary Restraints Upon Other Principles a
• [iv.iv] Chapter IV: Of Drawbacks
• [iv.v.a] Chapter V: Of Bounties
• [iv.v.b] Digression Concerning the Corn Trade and Corn Laws a – a

Variations in the Proportion between the respective Values of Gold and Silver

1Before the discovery of the mines of America, the value of fine gold to fine silver was regulated in the different mints of Europe, between the proportions of one to ten and one to twelve; that is, an ounce of fine gold was supposed to be worth from ten to twelve ounces of fine silver. About the middle of the last century it came to be regulated, between the proportions of one to fourteen and one to fifteen; that is, an ounce of fine gold came to be supposed worth between fourteen and fifteen ounces of fine silver. Gold rose in its nominal value, or in the quantity of silver which was given for it. Both metals sunk in their real value, or in the quantity of labour which they could purchase; but silver sunk more than gold. Though both the gold and silver mines of America exceeded in fertility all those which had ever been known before, the fertility of the silver mines had, it seems, been proportionably still greater than that of the gold ones.

2The great quantities of silver carried annually from Europe to India, have, in some of the English settlements, gradually reduced the value of that metal in proportion to gold. In the mint of Calcutta, an ounce of fine gold is supposed to be worth fifteen ounces of fine silver, in the same manner as in Europe. It is in the mint perhaps rated too high for the value which it bears in the market of Bengal. In China, the proportion of gold to silver still continues as one to ten^a, or one to twelve^a . In Japan, it is said to be as one to eight.

3The proportion between the quantities of gold and silver annually imported into Europe, according to Mr. Meggens’s account, is as one to twenty–two nearly; that is, for one ounce of gold there are imported a little more than twenty–two ounces of silver. The great quantity of silver sent annually to the East Indies, reduces, he supposes, the quantities of those metals which remain in Europe to the proportion of one to fourteen or fifteen, the proportion of their values. The proportion between their values, he seems to think, must necessarily be the same as that between their quantities, and would therefore be as one to twenty–two, were it not for this greater exportation of silver.1

4But the ordinary proportion between the respective values of two commodities is not necessarily the same as that between the quantities of them which are commonly in the market. The price of an ox, reckoned at ten guineas, is about threescore times the price of a lamb, reckoned at 3s. 6d. It would be absurd, however, to infer from thence, that there are commonly in the market threescore lambs for one ox: and it would be just as absurd to infer, because an ounce of gold will commonly purchase from fourteen to fifteen ounces of silver, that there are commonly in the market only fourteen or fifteen ounces of silver for one ounce of gold.

5 The quantity of silver commonly in the market, it is probable, is much greater in proportion to that of gold, than the value of a certain quantity of gold is to that of an equal quantity of silver. The whole quantity of a cheap commodity brought to market, is commonly not only greater, but of greater value, than the whole quantity of a dear one. The whole quantity of bread annually brought to market, is not only greater, but of greater value than the whole quantity of butcher’s–meat; the whole quantity of butcher’s–meat, than the whole quantity of poultry; and the whole quantity of poultry, than the whole quantity of wild fowl. There are so many more purchasers for the cheap than for the dear commodity, that, not only a greater quantity of it, but a greater value can commonly be disposed of. The whole quantity, therefore, of the cheap commodity must commonly be greater in proportion to the whole quantity of the dear one, than the value of a certain quantity of the dear one, is to the value of an equal quantity of the cheap one. When we compare the precious metals with one another, silver is a cheap, and gold a dear commodity. We ought naturally to expect, therefore, that there should always be in the market, not only a greater quantity, but a greater value of silver than of gold. Let any man, who has a little of both, compare his own silver with his gold plate, and he will probably find, that, not only the quantity, but the value of the former greatly exceeds that of the latter. Many people, besides, have a good deal of silver who have no gold plate, which, even with those who have it, is generally confined to watch–cases, snuff–boxes, and such like trinkets, of which the whole amount is seldom of great value. In the British coin, indeed, the value of the gold preponderates greatly, but it is not so in that of all countries. In the coin of some countries the value of the two metals is nearly equal. In the Scotch coin, before the union with England, the gold preponderated very little, though it did somewhat* , as it appears by the accounts of the mint. In the coin of many countries the silver preponderates. In France, the largest sums are commonly paid in that metal, and it is there difficult to get more gold than what^c is necessary to carry about in your pocket. The superior value, however, of the silver plate above that of the gold, which takes place in all countries, will much more than compensate the preponderancy of the gold coin above the silver, which takes place only in some countries.

6Though, in one sense of the word, silver always has been, and probably always will be, much cheaper than gold; yet in another sense, gold may, perhaps, in the present state of the ^dSpanish^d market, be said to be somewhat cheaper than silver. A commodity may be said to be dear or cheap, not only according to the absolute greatness or smallness of its usual price, but according as that price is more or less above the lowest for which it is possible to bring it to market for any considerable time together. This lowest price is that which barely replaces, with a moderate profit, the stock which must be employed in bringing the commodity thither. It is the price which affords nothing to the landlord, of which rent makes not any component part, but which resolves itself altogether into wages and profit. But, in the present state of the ^eSpanish^e market, gold is certainly somewhat nearer to this lowest price than silver. The tax of the King of Spain upon gold is only one–twentieth part of the standard metal, or five per cent.; whereas his tax upon silver amounts to ^fone–tenth^f part of it, or to ^gten^g per cent. In these taxes too, it has already been observed,2 consists the whole rent of the greater part of the gold and silver mines of Spanish America; and that upon gold is still worse paid than that upon silver. The profits of the undertakers of gold mines too, as they more rarely make a fortune, must, in general, be still more moderate than those of the undertakers of silver mines.3 The price of Spanish gold, therefore, as it affords both less rent and less profit, must, in the ^hSpanish^h market, be somewhat nearer to the lowest price for which it is possible to bring it thither, than the price of Spanish silver. ⁱWhen all expences are computed, the whole quantity of the one metal, it would seem, cannot, in the Spanish market, be disposed of so advantageously as the whole quantity of the other. The tax, indeed, of the King of Portugal upon the gold of the Brazils, is the same with the ancient tax of the King of Spain upon the silver of Mexico and Peru ; or one–fifth part of the standard metal.4 It may, therefore, be uncertain whether to the general market of Europe the whole mass of American gold comes at a price nearer to the lowest for which it is possible to bring it thither, than the whole mass of American silver.ⁱ

7The price of diamonds and other precious stones may, perhaps, be still nearer to the lowest price at which it is possible to bring them to market, than even the price of gold.

8^jThough it is not very probable, that any part of a tax, which is not only imposed upon one of the most proper subjects of taxation, a mere luxury and superfluity, but which affords so very important a revenue, as the tax upon silver, will ever be given up as long as it is possible to pay it; yet the same impossibility of paying it, which in 1736 made it necessary to reduce it from one–fifth to one–tenth, may in time make it necessary to reduce it still further; in the same manner as it made it necessary to reduce the tax upon gold to one–twentieth^j5 That the silver mines of Spanish America, like all other mines, become gradually more expensive in the working, on account of the greater depths at which it is necessary to carry on the works, and of the greater expence of drawing out the water and of supplying them with fresh air at those depths, is acknowledged by every body who has enquired into the state of those mines.

9 These causes, which are equivalent to a growing scarcity of silver (for a commodity may be said to grow scarcer when it becomes more difficult and expensive to collect a certain quantity of it) must, in time, produce one or other of the three following events. The increase of the expence must either, first, be compensated altogether by a proportionable increase in the price of the metal; or, secondly, it must be compensated altogether by a proportionable diminution of the tax upon silver; or, thirdly, it must be compensated partly by the one, and partly by the other of those two expedients. This third event is very possible. As gold rose in its price in proportion to silver, notwithstanding a great diminution of the tax upon gold; so silver might rise in its price in proportion to labour and commodities, notwithstanding an equal diminution of the tax upon silver.

10^kSuch successive reductions of the tax, however, though they may not prevent altogether, must certainly retard, more or less, the rise of the value of silver in the European market. In consequence of such reductions, many mines may be wrought which could not be wrought before, because they could not afford to pay the old tax; and the quantity of silver annually brought to market must always be somewhat greater, and, therefore, the value of any given quantity somewhat less, than it otherwise would have been. In consequence of the reduction in 1736, the value of silver in the European market, though it may not at this day be lower than before that reduction, is, probably, at least ten per cent. lower than it would have been, had the Court of Spain continued to exact the old tax.^k

11^lThat, notwithstanding this reduction, the value of silver has, during the course of the present century, begun to rise somewhat in the European market, the facts and arguments which have been alleged above, dispose me to believe, or more properly to suspect and conjecture; for the best opinion which I can form upon this subject scarce, perhaps, deserves the name of belief.^l The rise, indeed, ^msupposing there has been any,^m has hitherto been so very small, that after all that has been said, it may, perhaps, appear to many people uncertain, not only whether this event has actually taken place; but whether the contrary may not have taken place, or whether the value of silver may not still continue to fall in the European market.6

12ⁿ It must be observed, however, that whatever may be the supposed annual importation of gold and silver, there must be a certain period, at which the annual consumption of those metals will be equal to that annual importation. Their consumption must increase as their mass increases, or rather in a much greater proportion. As their mass increases, their value diminishes. They are more used, and less cared for, and their consumption consequently increases in a greater proportion than their mass. After a certain period, therefore, the annual consumption of those metals must, in this manner become equal to their annual importation, provided that importation is not continually increasing; which, in the present times, is not supposed to be the case.

13If, when the annual consumption has become equal to the annual importation, the annual importation should gradually diminish, the annual consumption, may, for some time, exceed the annual importation. The mass of those metals may gradually and insensibly diminish, and their value gradually and insensibly rise, till the annual importation becoming again stationary, the annual consumption will gradually and insensibly accommodate itself to what that annual importation can maintain.ⁿ7

[a–a]2–6

[1 ]N. Magens, The Universal Merchant, ed. Horsley, 207, reprints Isaac Newton’s Representation to the Lords of the Treasury and quotes: ‘In China and Japan, 1 Pound Weight of fine Gold is worth but 9 or 10 Pounds Weight of fine Silver; and in East–India it may be worth 12. And this low Price of Gold in Proportion to Silver carries away the Silver from all Europe’. Magens adds in a note: ‘Till about the Year 1732, we know of great Quantities of Silver going from Europe to China, to fetch Gold back, which has caused the Price of Gold in China to rise so much, that it is now not worth sending farther any Silver there.’ Cantillon was less sure of the attractiveness of the trade in gold and silver ‘Taking the ratio at 1 to 15 in England and 1 to 8 in Japan there would be more than 87 per cent. to gain by carrying silver from England to Japan and bringing back gold. But this difference is not enough in the ordinary course to pay the costs of so long and difficult a voyage.’ (Cantillon, Essai, 370, ed. Higgs 279.)

[bb* ]See Ruddiman’s Preface to Anderson’s Diplomata &c. Scotiæ.b [James Anderson, Selectus diplomatum et numismatum Scotiæ thesaurus, ed. T. Ruddiman (Edinburgh, 1739), 84–5; and see below, II.ii.42.]

[c]it 1

[d–d]European 1

[e–e]European 1

[f–f]one–fifth 1

[g–g]twenty 1

[2 ]Above, I.xi.c.25 and I.xi.g.21.

[3 ]Above, I.xi.c.28.

[h–h]European 1

[i–i]The tax of the king of Portugal, indeed, upon the gold of the Brazils, is the same with that of the king of Spain, upon the silver of Mexico and Peru; or one fifth part of the standard metal. It must still be true, however, that the whole mass of American gold comes to the European market, at a price nearer to the lowest for which it is possible to bring it thither, than the whole mass of American silver. When all expences are computed, it would seem, the whole quantity of the one metal cannot be disposed of so advantageously as the whole quantity of the other. 1

[4 ]Above, I.xi.g.33.

[j–j]Were the king of Spain to give up his tax upon silver, the price of that metal might not, upon that account, sink immediately in the European market. As long as the quantity brought thither continued the same as before, it would still continue to sell at the same price. The first and immediate effect of this change, would be to increase the profits of mining, the undertaker of the mine now gaining all that he had been used to pay to the king. These great profits would soon tempt a greater number of people to undertake the working of new mines. Many mines would be wrought which cannot be wrought at present, because they cannot afford to pay this tax, and the quantity of silver brought to market would, in a few years, be so much augmented, probably, as to sink its price about one–fifth below its present standard. This diminution in the value of silver would again reduce the profits of mining nearly to their present rate.

It is not indeed very probable, that any part of a tax which affords so important a revenue, and which is imposed too upon one of the most proper subjects of taxation, will ever be given up as long as it is possible to pay it. The impossibility of paying it, however, may in time make it necessary to diminish it, in the same manner as made it necessary to diminish the tax upon gold. 1

[5 ]Above, I.xi.c.25 and I.xi.g.21.

[k–k]2–6 [includes the whole of this paragraph]

[l–l]That the first of these three events has already begun to take place, or that silver has during the course of the present century, begun to rise somewhat in its value in the European market, the facts and arguments which have been alledged above dispose me to believe. 1

[m–m]2–6

[6 ]See above, I.v.12.

[n–n]2A–6 [includes § 12 and 13]

[   ][[see note n–nabove]]

[7 ]‘If the annual consumption of bullion in Europe, both by the East–India trade, and by the conversion of it into plate, be equal to what the American mines annually supply; the value of money taken abstractly, or without referring it to commodities, will remain invariable: But if the said consumption be less, or more, than the said produce of the mines; the whole quantity of money will be accordingly increased, or diminished; and the value of a given part or sum, will be lessened, or increased, in that proportion.’ (J. Harris, Essay, i.79.)

[bb* ]See Ruddiman’s Preface to Anderson’s Diplomata &c. Scotiæ.b [James Anderson, Selectus diplomatum et numismatum Scotiæ thesaurus, ed. T. Ruddiman (Edinburgh, 1739), 84–5; and see below, II.ii.42.]

[b]2–6