The Online Library of Liberty

A project of Liberty Fund, Inc.

• Preface
• Remarks Concerning the Translation Its Method and Arrangement
• List of Abbreviations
• Errata
• An Outline of the Philosophy of the Upanishads
• Chapter I: The Place of the Upanishads In the History of Philosophy
• Chapter II: The Upanishads and Their Place In Indian Philosophy
• Chapter III: First Attempts At the Conception of a Unitary World-ground
• Chapter IV: The Development of the Conception of Brahma
• Chapter V: The Development of the Conception of the Atman and Its Union With Brahma
• Chapter VI: The Realistic Conception of the Ultimate Unity, and the Doctrine of Illusion
• Chapter VII: Idealism and the Conception of Pure Unity
• Chapter VIII: The Outcome On Religion and On the Doctrine of Karma
• Chapter IX: The Outcome On Practical Life and On Morals
• Chapter X: The Artificial Method of Unity In Renunciation and In Yoga
• Chapter XI: Concluding Estimate
• BṚihad-ĀraṆyaka Upanishad
• First AdhyĀya
• Second AdhyĀya
• Third AdhyĀya
• Fourth AdhyĀya
• Fifth AdhyĀya
• Sixth AdhyĀya
• ChĀndogya Upanishad
• First PrapĀṬhaka a Glorification of the Chanting of the Sāma-veda 1
• Second PrapĀṬhaka the Significance of the Chant In Various Forms
• Third PrapĀṬhaka Brahma As the Sun of the World-all
• Fourth PrapĀṬhaka Conversational Instructions
• Fifth PrapĀṬhaka Concerning Breath, the Soul, and the Universal Soul
• Sixth PrapĀṬhaka the Instruction of Śvetaketu By Uddālaka Concerning the Key to All Knowledge
• Seventh PrapĀṬhaka the Instruction of Nārada By Sanatkumāra
• Eighth PrapĀṬhaka Concerning the Nature of the Soul
• TaittirĪya Upanishad
• First VallĪ (Śikshā Vallī, ‘chapter Concerning Instruction’)
• Second VallĪ (brahmānanda Vallī, ‘bliss-of-brahma Chapter’)
• Third VallĪ (bhṛigu Vallī, ‘chapter Concerning Bhṛigu’)
• Aitareya Upanishad
• First AdhyĀya
• Second AdhyĀya
• Third AdhyĀya
• KaushĪtaki Upanishad 1
• First AdhyĀya the Course of Reincarnation, and Its Termination Through Metaphysical Knowledge 2
• Second AdhyĀya the Doctrine of Prāṇa, Together With Certain Ceremonies
• Third AdhyĀya Doctrine of Prāṇa (the Breathing Spirit)
• Fourth AdhyĀya a Progressive Definition of Brahma 2
• Kena Upanishad 1
• (first KhaṆḌa)
• (second KhaṆḌa)
• (third KhaṆḌa) 3
• (fourth KhaṆḌa)
• KaṬha Upanishad
• First VallĪ 1
• Second VallĪ
• Third VallĪ
• Fourth VallĪ
• Fifth VallĪ
• Sixth VallĪ
• ĪŚĀ Upanishad 1
• MuṆḌaka Upanishad
• First MuṆḌaka Preparation For the Knowledge of Brahma
• Second MuṆḌaka the Doctrine of Brahma-Ātman
• Third MuṆḌaka the Way to Brahma
• PraŚna Upanishad 1
• First PraŚna
• Second PraŚna
• Third PraŚna
• Fourth PraŚna
• Fifth PraŚna
• Sixth PraŚna
• MĀṆḌŪkya Upanishad
• ŚvetĀŚvatara Upanishad
• First AdhyĀya
• Second AdhyĀya
• Third AdhyĀya
• Fourth AdhyĀya
• Fifth AdhyĀya
• Sixth AdhyĀya
• Maitri Upanishad
• First PrapĀṬhaka
• Second PrapĀṬhaka
• Third PrapĀṬhaka
• Fourth PrapĀṬhaka
• Fifth PrapĀṬhaka
• Sixth PrapĀṬhaka
• Seventh PrapĀṬhaka
• A Bibliography of the Upanishads Selected, Classified, and Annotated

EIGHTH PRAPĀṬHAKA

Concerning the nature of the soul

First Khaṇḍa

The universal real Soul, within the heart and in the world

1.Om! [The teacher should say:] ‘Now, what is here in this city of Brahma,4 is an abode, a small lotus-flower.5 Within that is a small space. What is within that, should be searched out; that, assuredly, is what one should desire to understand.’

2. If they [i.e. the pupils] should say to him: ‘This abode, the small lotus-flower that is here in this city of Brahma, and the small space within that—what is there there which should be searched out, which assuredly one should desire to understand?’ [3] he should say: ‘As far, verily, as this world-space (ayam ākāśa) extends, so far extends the space within the heart. Within it, indeed, are contained both heaven and earth, both fire and wind, both sun and moon, lightning and the stars, both what one possesses here and what one does not possess; everything here is contained within it.’

4. If they should say to him: ‘If within this city of Brahma is contained everything here, all beings as well as all desires, when old age overtakes it or it perishes, what is left over therefrom?’ [5] he should say: ‘That does not grow old with one’s old age; it is not slain with one’s murder. That1 is the real city of Brahma. In it desires are contained. That is the Soul (Ātman), free from evil, ageless, deathless, sorrowless, hungerless, thirstless, whose desire is the Real, whose conception is the Real.

For, just as here on earth human beings follow along in subjection to command; of whatever object they are desirous, whether a realm or a part of a field, upon that they live dependent2 —

6. As here on earth the world which is won by work (karmajita loka) becomes destroyed, even so there the world which is won by merit (puṇya-jita loka) becomes destroyed.

Those who go hence without here having found the Soul (Ātman) and those real desires (satya kāma)—for them in all the worlds there is no freedom. But those who go hence having found here the Soul and those real desires—for them in all worlds there is freedom.

Second Khaṇḍa

1. If he becomes desirous of the world of fathers, merely out of his conception (saṁkalpa) fathers arise. Possessed of that world of fathers, he is happy.

2. So, if he becomes desirous of the world of mothers, merely out of his conception mothers arise. Possessed of that world of mothers, he is happy.

3. So, if he becomes desirous of the world of brothers, merely out of his conception brothers arise. Possessed of that world of brothers, he is happy.

4. So, if he becomes desirous of the world of sisters, merely out of his conception sisters arise. Possessed of that world of sisters, he is happy.

5. So, if he becomes desirous of the world of friends, merely out of his conception friends arise. Possessed of that world of friends, he is happy.

6. So, if he becomes desirous of the world of perfume and garlands, merely out of his conception perfume and garlands arise. Possessed of that world of perfume and garlands, he is happy.

7. So, if he becomes desirous of the world of food and drink, merely out of his conception food and drink arise. Possessed of that world of food and drink, he is happy.

8. So, if he becomes desirous of the world of song and music, merely out of his conception song and music arise. Possessed of that world of song and music, he is happy.

9. So, if he becomes desirous of the world of women, merely out of his conception women arise. Possessed of that world of women, he is happy.

10. Of whatever object he becomes desirous, whatever desire he desires, merely out of his conception it arises. Possessed of it, he is happy.

Third Khaṇḍa

1. These same are real desires (satya kāma) with a covering of what is false. Although they are real, there is a covering that is false.

For truly, whoever of one’s [fellows] departs hence, one does not get him [back] to look at here.

2. But those of one’s [fellows] who are alive there, and those who have departed, and whatever else one desires but does not get—all this one finds by going in there [i.e. in the Soul]; for there, truly, are those real desires of his which have a covering of what is false.

So, just as those who do not know the spot might go over a hid treasure of gold again and again, but not find it, even so all creatures here go day by day to that Brahma-world (brahma-loka) [in deep sleep], but do not find it; for truly they are carried astray by what is false.

3. Verily, this Soul (Ātman) is in the heart. The etymological explanation (nirukta) thereof is this: This one is in the heart (hṛdy ayam); therefore it is the heart (hṛdayam). Day by day, verily, he who knows this goes to the heavenly world (svarga loka).

4. Now, that serene one1 who, rising up out of this body, reaches the highest light and appears with his own form—he is the Soul (Ātman),’ said he [i.e. the teacher]. ‘That is the immortal, the fearless. That is Brahma.’

Verily, the name of that Brahma is the Real (satyam).

5. Verily, these are the three syllables: sat-ti-yam.2 The sat (Being)—that is the immortal. The ti—that is the mortal.3 Now the yam—with that one holds the two together. Because with it one holds (√yam) the two together, therefore it is yam. Day by day, verily, he who knows this goes to the heavenly world.

Fourth Khaṇḍa

1. Now, the Soul (Ātman) is the bridge [or, dam], the separation for keeping these worlds apart. Over that bridge [or, dam] there cross neither day, nor night, nor old age, nor death, nor sorrow, nor well-doing, nor evil-doing.

2. All evils turn back therefrom, for that Brahma-world is freed from evil. (2) Therefore, verily, upon crossing that bridge, if one is blind, he becomes no longer blind; if he is sick, he becomes no longer sick. Therefore, verily, upon crossing that bridge, the night appears even as the day, for that Brahma-world is ever illumined.

3. But only they who find that Brahma-world through the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge (brahmacarya)—only they possess that Brahma-world. In all worlds they possess unlimited freedom.

Fifth Khaṇḍa

The true way to the Brahma-world, through a life of abstinent religious study

1. Now, what people call ‘sacrifice’ (yajña) is really the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge (brahmacarya), for only through the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge does he who is a knower (ya jñātṛ) find that [world].

Now, what people call ‘what has been sacrificed’ (iṣṭam) is really the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge, for only after having searched (iṣṭvā) with the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge does one find the Soul (Ātman).

2. Now, what people call ‘the protracted sacrifice’ (sattrāyaṇa) is really the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge, for only through the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge does one find the protection (trāṇa) of the real (sat) Soul (Ātman).

Now, what people call ‘silent asceticism’ (mauna) is really the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge, for only in finding the Soul through the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge does one [really] think (manute).

3. Now, what people call ‘a course of fasting’ (an-āśakāyana1 ) is really the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge, for the Soul (Ātman) which one finds through the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge perishes not (na naśyati).

Now, what people call ‘betaking oneself to hermit life in the forest’ (araṇyāyana) is really the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge. Verily, the two seas in the Brahma-world, in the third heaven from here, are Ara and Ṇya. There is the lake Airaṁmadīya (‘Affording Refreshment and Ecstasy’); there, the fig-tree Somasavana (‘the Soma-yielding’); there, Brahma’s citadel, Aparājitā (‘the Unconquered’), the golden hall of the Lord (prabhu).

4. But only they who find those two seas, Ara and Ṇya, in the Brahma-world through the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge—only they possess that Brahma-world. In all the worlds they possess unlimited freedom.

Sixth Khaṇḍa

Passing out from the heart through the sun to immortality

1. Now, as for these arteries of the heart—they arise from the finest essence, which is reddish brown, white, blue, yellow, and red: so it is said. Verily, yonder sun is reddish brown; it is white; it is blue; it is yellow; it is red.

2. Now, as a great extending highway goes to two villages, this one and the yonder, even so these rays of the sun go to two worlds, this one and the yonder. They extend from yonder sun, and creep into these arteries. They extend from these arteries, and creep into yonder sun.

3. Now, when one is thus sound asleep, composed, serene, he knows no dream; then he has crept into these arteries; so no evil touches him, for then he has reached the Bright Power (tejas).

4. Now, when one thus becomes reduced to weakness, those sitting around say: ‘Do you know me?’ ‘Do you know me?’ As long as he has not departed from this body, he knows them.

5. But when he thus departs from this body, then he ascends upward with these very rays of the sun. With the thought of Om, verily, he passes up. As quickly as one could direct his mind to it, he comes to the sun. That, verily, indeed, is the world-door, an entrance for knowers, a stopping for non-knowers.

6. As to this there is the following verse:—

• There are a hundred and one arteries of the heart.
• One of these passes up to the crown of the head.
• Going up by it, one goes to immortality.
• The others are for departing in various directions.1

Seventh Khaṇḍa

The progressive instruction of Indra by Prajāpati concerning the real self

1. ‘The Self (Ātman), which is free from evil, ageless, deathless, sorrowless, hungerless, thirstless, whose desire is the Real, whose conception is the Real—He should be searched out, Him one should desire to understand. He obtains all worlds and all desires who has found out and who understands that Self.’—Thus spake Prajāpati.

2. Then both the gods and the devils (deva-asura) heard it. Then they said: ‘Come! Let us search out that Self, the Self by searching out whom one obtains all worlds and all desires!’

Then Indra from among the gods went forth unto him, and Virocana from among the devils. Then, without communicating with each other, the two came into the presence of Prajāpati, fuel in hand.1

3. Then for thirty-two years the two lived the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge (brahmacarya).

Then Prajāpati said to the two: ‘Desiring what have you been living?’

Then the two said: ‘ “The Self (Ātman), which is free from evil, ageless, deathless, sorrowless, hungerless, thirstless, whose desire is the Real, whose conception is the Real—He should be searched out, Him one should desire to understand. He obtains all worlds and all desires who has found out and who understands that Self.”—Such do people declare to be your words, Sir. We have been living desiring Him.’

4. Then Prajāpati said to the two: ‘That Person who is seen in the eye—He is the Self (Ātman) of whom I spoke.2 That is the immortal, the fearless. That is Brahma.’

‘But this one, Sir, who is observed in water and in a mirror—which one is he?’

‘The same one, indeed, is observed in all these,’ said he.

Eighth Khaṇḍa

1. ‘Look at yourself in a pan of water. Anything that you do not understand of the Self, tell me.’

Then the two looked in a pan of water.

Then Prajāpati said to the two: ‘What do you see?’

Then the two said: ‘We see everything here, Sir, a Self corresponding exactly, even to the hair and finger-nails!’

2. Then Prajāpati said to the two: ‘Make yourselves well-ornamented, well-dressed, adorned, and look in a pan of water.’

Then the two made themselves well-ornamented, well-dressed, adorned, and looked in a pan of water.

Then Prajāpati said to the two: ‘What do you see?’

3. Then the two said: ‘Just as we ourselves are here, Sir, well-ornamented, well-dressed, adorned—so there, Sir, well-ornamented, well-dressed, adorned.’

‘That is the Self,’ said he. ‘That is the immortal, the fearless. That is Brahma.’

Then with tranquil heart (śānta-hrdaya) the two went forth.

4. Then Prajāpati glanced after them, and said: ‘They go without having comprehended, without having found the Self (Ātman). Whosoever shall have such a mystic doctrine (upaniṣad), be they gods or be they devils, they shall perish.’

Then with tranquil heart Virocana came to the devils. To them he then declared this mystic doctrine (upaniṣad): ‘Oneself (ātman)1 is to be made happy here on earth. Oneself is to be waited upon. He who makes his own self (ātman) happy here on earth, who waits upon himself—he obtains both worlds, both this world and the yonder.’

5. Therefore even now here on earth they say of one who is not a giver, who is not a believer (a-śraddadhāna), who is not a sacrificer, ‘Oh! devilish (asura)!’ for such is the doctrine (upaniṣad) of the devils. They adorn the body (śarīra) of one deceased with what they have begged, with dress, with ornament, as they call it, for they think that thereby they will win yonder world.

Ninth Khaṇḍa

1. But then Indra, even before reaching the gods, saw this danger: ‘Just as, indeed, that one [i.e. the bodily self] is well-ornamented when this body (śarīra) is well-ornamented, well-dressed when this is well-dressed, adorned when this is adorned, even so that one is blind when this is blind, lame when this is lame, maimed when this is maimed. It perishes immediately upon the perishing of this body. I see nothing enjoyable in this.’

2. Fuel in hand, back again he came. Then Prajāpati said to him: ‘Desiring what, O Maghavan (‘Munificent One’), have you come back again, since you along with Virocana went forth with tranquil heart?’

Then he said: ‘Just as, indeed, that one [i.e. the bodily self] is well-ornamented when this body is well-ornamented, well-dressed when this is well-dressed, adorned when this is adorned, even so it is blind when this is blind, lame when this is lame, maimed when this is maimed. It perishes immediately upon the perishing of this body. I see nothing enjoyable in this.’

3. ‘He is even so, O Maghavan,’ said he. ‘However, I will explain this further to you. Live with me thirty-two years more.’

Then he lived with him thirty-two years more

To him [i.e. to Indra] he [i.e. Prajāpati] then said:—

Tenth Khaṇḍa

1. ‘He who moves about happy in a dream—he is the Self (Ātman),’ said he. ‘That is the immortal, the fearless. That is Brahma.’

Then with tranquil heart he [i. e. Indra] went forth.

Then, even before reaching the gods, he saw this danger: ‘Now, even if this body is blind, that one [i.e. the Self, Ātman] is not blind. If this is lame, he is not lame. Indeed, he does not suffer defect through defect of this. [2] He is not slain with one’s murder. He is not lame with one’s lameness. Nevertheless, as it were (iva), they kill him; as it were, they unclothe1 him; as it were, he comes to experience what is unpleasant; as it were, he even weeps. I see nothing enjoyable in this.’

3. Fuel in hand, back again he came. Then Prajāpati said to him: ‘Desiring what, O Maghavan, have you come back again, since you went forth with tranquil heart?’

Then he said: ‘Now, Sir, even if this body is blind, that one [i.e. the Self] is not blind. If this is lame, he is not lame. Indeed, he does not suffer defect through defect of this. [4] He is not slain with one’s murder. He is not lame with one’s lameness. Nevertheless, as it were, they kill him; as it were, they unclothe1 him; as it were, he comes to experience what is unpleasant; as it were, he even weeps. I see nothing enjoyable in this.’

‘He is even so, O Maghavan,’ said he. ‘However, I will explain this further to you. Live with me thirty-two years more.’

Then he lived with him thirty-two years more.

To him [i. e. to Indra] he [i. e. Prajāpati] then said:—

Eleventh Khaṇḍa

1. ‘Now, when one is sound asleep, composed, screne, and knows no dream—that is the Self (Ātman),’ said he. ‘That is the immortal, the fearless. That is Brahma.’

Then with tranquil heart he went forth.

Then, even before reaching the gods, he saw this danger: ‘Assuredly, indeed, this one does not exactly know himself (ātmānam) with the thought “I am he,” nor indeed the things here. He becomes one who has gone to destruction. I see nothing enjoyable in this.’

2. Fuel in hand, back again he came. Then Prajāpati said to him: ‘Desiring what, O Maghavan, have you come back again, since you went forth with tranquil heart?’

Then he [i. e. Indra] said: ‘Assuredly, this [self] does not exactly know himself with the thought “I am he,” nor indeed the things here. He becomes one who has gone to destruction. I see nothing enjoyable in this.’

3. ‘He is even so, O Maghavan,’ said he. ‘However, I will explain this further to you, and there is nothing else besides this. Live with me five years more.’

Then he lived with him five years more.—That makes one hundred and one years. Thus it is that people say, ‘Verily, for one hundred and one years Maghavan lived the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge (brahmacarya) with Prajāpati.’—

To him [i.e. to Indra] he [i.e. Prajāpati] then said:—

Twelfth Khaṇḍa

1. ‘O Maghavan, verily, this body (śarīra) is mortal. It has been appropriated by Death (Mṛityu). [But] it is the standing-ground of that deathless, bodiless Self (Ātman). Verily, he who is incorporate has been appropriated by pleasure and pain. Verily, there is no freedom from pleasure and pain for one while he is incorporate. Verily, while one is bodiless, pleasure and pain do not touch him.

2. The wind is bodiless. Clouds, lightning, thunder—these are bodiless. Now as these, when they arise from yonder space and reach the highest light, appear each with its own form, [3] even so that serene one (samprasāda), when he rises up from this body (śarīra) and reaches the highest light, appears with his own form. Such a one is the supreme person (uttama puruṣa). There such a one goes around laughing, sporting, having enjoyment with women or chariots or friends, not remembering the appendage of this body. As a draft-animal is yoked in a wagon, even so this spirit (prāṇa) is yoked in this body.

4. Now, when the eye is directed thus toward space, that is the seeing person (cākṣuṣa puruṣa); the eye is [the instrument] for seeing. Now, he who knows “Let me smell this”—that is the Self (Ātman); the nose is [the instrument] for smelling. Now, he who knows “Let me utter this”—that is the Self; the voice is [the instrument] for utterance. Now, he who knows “Let me hear this”—that is the Self; the ear is [the instrument] for hearing.

5. Now, he who knows “Let me think this”—that is the Self; the mind (manas) is his divine eye (daiva cakṣu). He, verily, with that divine eye the mind, sees desires here, and experiences enjoyment.

6. Verily, those gods who are in the Brahma-world1 reverence that Self. Therefore all worlds and all desires have been appropriated by them. He obtains all worlds and all desires who has found out and who understands that Self (Ātman).’

Thus spake Prajāpati—yea, thus spake Prajāpati!

Thirteenth Khaṇḍa

A paean of the perfected soul

1. From the dark I go to the varicolored. From the varicolored I go to the dark. Shaking off evil, as a horse his hairs; shaking off the body (śarīra), as the moon releases itself from the mouth of Rāhu2 ; I, a perfected soul (kṛtātman), pass into the uncreated Brahma-world—yea, into it I pass!

Fourteenth Khaṇḍa

The exultation and prayer of a glorious learner

1. Verily, what is called space (ākāśa) is the accomplisher of name and form.3 That within which they are, is Brahma. That is the immortal. That is the Self (Ātman, Soul).

I go to Prajāpati’s abode and assembly-hall.

I am the glory of the Brahmans (brāhmaṇa), the glory of the princes (rājan), the glory of the people (viś).

I have attained unto glory.

May I, who am the glory of the glories, not go to hoary and toothless, yea to toothless and hoary and driveling [old age]!

Yea, may I not go to driveling [old age]!

Fifteenth Khaṇḍa

Final words to the departing pupil

1. This did Brahmā tell to Prajāpati; Prajāpati, to Manu, Manu, to human beings (prajā).

He who according to rule has learned the Veda from the family of a teacher, in time left over from doing work for the teacher; he who, after having come back again, in a home of his own continues Veda-study in a clean place and produces [sons and pupils]; he who has concentrated all his senses upon the Soul (Ātman); he who is harmless (ahiṁsant) toward all things elsewhere than at holy places (tīrtha)1 —he, indeed, who lives thus throughout his length of life, reaches the Brahma-world and does not return hither again—yea, he does not return hither again!2

TAITTIRĪYA UPANISHAD

[4 ]Explained by Śaṅkara as ‘the body.’

[5 ]Explained by Śaṅkara as ‘the heart.’

[1 ]And not the body.

[2 ]The apodosis of this comparison seems to be lacking. However, the general idea is doubtless the same as in the following prophecies. i. e. they who in this life are slaves to the dictates of desire like the slaves of a ruler, will continue unchanged in the hereafter. Whitney, in his review of ‘Bohtlingk’s Upanishads’ in the American Journal of Philology, vol. 11, p. 429, interprets the protasis somewhat differently: ‘ “For just as here subjects (of a king who leads them into a new territory) settle down according to order, [and] whatever direction their desires take them to, what region, what piece of ground, that same they severally live upon”—so, we are to understand, is it also in the other world; one’s desires determine his condition there.’

[1 ]That is, the soul in deep sleep.

[2 ]Another analytic explanation of the word satyam occurs at Brih. 5. 5. 1.

[3 ]Perhaps on the ground that the sound ti is contained in the word martya, meaning ‘mortal’.

[1 ]According to another possible division of the compound word which Śaṅkara seems to have adopted, a-nāśaka-ayana, it would mean ‘entrance into the unperishing.’

[1 ]This stanza recurs at Kaṭha 6. 16.

[1 ]In token of discipleship.

[2 ]Or the text might be translated: ‘ “That Person who is seen in the eye—He is the Self,” said he. “That is the immortal, the fearless. That is Brahma.” ’ Such quite certainly is the translation of the very same words which have already occurred in 4. 15. 1.

[1 ]Besides meaning ‘oneself,’ as it evidently does both in this paragraph and in the beginning of the following paragraph, the word ātman may also have the connotation ‘one’s body,’ which seems to be the meaning in the latter half of the following paragraph.

[1 ]Reading vicchādayanti with all the texts, from √chad. However, the Com. explains as ‘they chase.’ The parallel passage in Bṛih. 4. 3. 20 has vicchāyayati ‘tear to pieces,’ from √chā.

[1 ]Who received this instruction from Prajāpati through Indra, the chief of the Vedic gods.

[2 ]Referring to the familiar idea that an eclipse is caused by the dragon Rāhu’s attempt to swallow the moon.

[3 ]‘Name and form’ is the Sanskrit expression for the modern term ‘individuality.’

[1 ]That is, at animal sacrifices.

[2 ]That is, in reincarnation.