The Online Library of Liberty

A project of Liberty Fund, Inc.

• Preface
• Key to Abbreviations and References
• Introduction
• 1.: The Manuscript
• 2.: The Lectures
• 3.: Considerations Concerning the First Formation of Languages
• 4.: Rhetoric and Literary Criticism
• 5.: System and Aesthetics
• Bibliographical Note
• Lectures On Rhetoric and Belles Lettres: Lecture 2D.
• Lecture 3D.: Of the Origin and Progress of Language 1
• Lecture 4tha
• Lecture 5. A
• Lecture 6.THA: Of What Is Called the Tropes and Figures of Speech. B
• Lecture. 7. A
• Lecture. 8. A
• Lecture. 9tha
• Lecture. 10tha
• Lecture. 11 a
• Lecture. 12.THA: Of Composition
• Lecture. 13 a
• | Lecture. 14 a
• Lecture 15tha
• Lecture. 16th. a
• Lecture XVII. A
• Lecture Xviii a
• Lecture. Xixth. a
• Lecture. XX.THA
• Lecture Xxist. a
• Lecture Xxiida
• Lecture Xxiiida
• Lecture Xxivtha
• Lecture XXV. A
• Lecture Xxvitha
• Lecture Xxvii a
• Lecture Xxviiitha
• Lecture Xxix a
• Lecture. Xxx a
• Considerations Concerning the First Formation of Languages,&c. &c.1
• Appendix 1 (see P. 32) the Bee, Or Literary Weekly Intelligencer, For Wednesday, May 11, 1791.
• Appendix 2 Table of Corresponding Passages

Lecture 4^tha

Wedinsday Nov. 24

As such great defects have been unavoidably introduced into the English Language by the very manner of its formation, it will be proper to consider how far and by what means they have been remedied.

The first of those defects which comes to be considered is the prolixity necessarily attending a Language which has so few flexions in its Nouns and Verbs. To remedy this, many contractions have been made ^b in the words themselves. The e which formerly made the finall syllable of the 3^d person 1 of all our verbs has been universally throw<n> out where it possibly could, and in many cases where it had been better retain’d, as in Judged; but the generall rule is followd. ^c Most of our own native words consist [consist] of but one or two or at most three syllables. There are fewer of one | v.37 than in any other language whatever. {The Italian and French are compounded of Simple Languages but into the composition of the English there enters a language already compounded viz. the French.} ^d When we borrow from other language<s> words of more syllables, they are ^e shortend by the manner of pronunciation. This is very remarkable in the words refractory, concupiscence: and ^f of other words too where this cannot be done, we fairly strike off one half, as in Plenipotentiary, Incognito, which in the mouths of some would sound plenipo, Incog.

The pronunciation of ^g sentences is likewise shortend in the same manner, by throwing the accent as near the beginning as possible, which makes it much sooner pronounced. This method lies exactly conterary to that in use in the French Language, where the accent both in words and periods is thrown on to the last sylable | v.38 or the concluding word. The former is what seems most likely to produce a melodious sound as it is a known rule in Musick that the first note of a bar, or the first pitch of any note that is to be repeated with a uniform accent should be sharpest. Whereas the manner of the French pronounciation makes the sentence continually more and more precipitate till at last it breaks of short. | 39 {From this contrariety we may see the reason why a French man will never be able to speak English with the proper accent, nor an English man French if the habit be confirmed by time. To shew that the English manner of pronouncing a sentence, high at first and lower in the end, we need only observe that it is the manner in which all those speak who have a cant or whine whether in reading, preaching or crying oysters or broken bellows, the first is allways the high note and the last part dies away and is hardly felt.}

The Melody of sound has likewise been attended to in many respects. The harsh and uncouth gutturalls which so much prevailed have been allmost entirely laid aside: thought, wrought, taught, are now pronounced as if there was no gutturall in them.—Ch, which was sometime ago pronounced ^h as the greek Χ, is | v.39 now pronounced either as when it ends a word[s] as in charming, change, etc. or as Κ in character, chimera. The finall syllable ed which has a sound nearly as harsh as eth is now laid aside as often as possible, and even sometimes when <it> had better been continued; but when common use which has the supreme determination in these matters has determined otherwise, ’tis vain to stand out.

Eth as we just now mentioned is softened into s; loveth to loves, willeth to wills. This change however is still faulty as it encreases the hissing of the language ⁱ , already very remarkable as most of the pronouns and plurall nouns end in the letter S. But tho the sound may not be altogether harmonious, yet it is much better than the other, which as well as ed ap| v.40proaches nearly to a whisper and dies away to nothing.

| 40 {The frequent use of the letter S and the hissing thereby occasion’d is commonly ascribed to the defect of a musicall ear in the English nation. But this does not seem to be the case ^j . The introduction of it here is of reall advantage; and besides their is no reason to think there is any defect in the point of a musicall ear. For there is as generall a good taste for musick in England as in any other nation unless the Italians, and what is still of more weight no nation attends more to a musicall pronounciation, as is hereafter to be observed.

Some authors ^k indeed have wrote constantly eth and ed, as Swift and Bolinbroke ^l , but if they were now to read their own works ^m they would undoubtedly read flows, brings, avowd, | 41 which are certainly smarter words than floweth, bringeth, avowed, the pronounciation of our more deliberate and sober ancestors.

ⁿ In order also to curtail the Phrases we omitt prefixing the Particles to every word, as in translating the Tittle of the Abbee du Bos’s Book, 2 yet this sure is the accurate method and that without which we are exposed to ambiguity. It is thus that we write in Publick Monuments etc. Here again the Generall rule betrays us into an Error.}

| v.40 Besides these alterations on the pronunciation of the consonants, there are severall attempts to remedy the harshness of the language in the pronunciation of the vowels and dipthongs, which are indeed but very few. The first vowel a is softened into the same sound as in other[s] nations is given to the greek η, unless in a few words where it would be dissagreable as in Walk, Talk. The 2^d vowel E is sounded as other nations do the 3^d i, which in the english has a different sound when it is long and when it is short; in the first case it is sound<ed> as a Diphthong, as in idol, and in the latter has the same as they give E, as in intelligible. The 5^th vowel u has also 2 sounds, in one case it is pronounced as the diphthong iu, as in muse, pronounced as eu in Eugen, and in | v.41 other cases it has the same sound as in other languages, as in undone. 3 The diphthongs also have their full strength, and are sound<ed> stronger than in any other languages, as in Faith, mourn etc. ^o

But what has a greater effect on the sound of the Language than all the rest is the harmonious and sonorous pronunciation peculiar to the English nation. There is a certain ringing in their manner of speaking which foreigners can never attain. Hence it is that this language which when spoke by the natives is allowed to be very melodious and agreable, in the mouths of strangers is strangely harsh and grating. {The English have been led into all these practices without thinking of them to remedy the Naturall harshness of their Language, which they have effected} ^p .

| v.42 I proceed next to make some observations on the arrangement of words, which will naturally lead ^q to the consideration of what I call stile.

A Period is a set of words expressing a compleat sense without the help of any other.

The members of a period are those phrases which make up that sense, and may frequently have ^r a sense of their own, compleat enough without the other and only referring to it by some word or two.

In every ^s member there are generally three principall parts or terms | 43 {because every Judgement of the humane mind must comprehend two Ideas between which we declare that relation subsists or does not subsist} ^t ; concer<ning> ^u Two of these we affirm some thing or other, and the third connects them together and expresses the affirmation. One of these is that which is the chief part or subject of the member | v.43 and is therefore called the subjective term; the middle one which connects the extremes is called the Attributive ^v , and the other of whom the assertion is made is called the objective ^w , as of inferiour rank to the former one. These three must generally be placed in the order we have mentioned as otherwise the meaning of the sentence would become ambiguous. It is also to be observed that in sentences expressed by neuter [neuter] verbs their is no adjective ^x , it is when the verb is active that the term can be used. In Imperative ^y and Interogative expressions the order of the terms is also different.—Besides these terms there <are> other two which frequently occur {tho not necessary to constitute a perfect Member of a Period or Phrase} ^z and denote the <one> how far, and the other in what circumstances, | v.44 the proposition expressed by the ^a three forementiond terms is to be understood. The former is called the terminative and the latter the circumstantiall. Tho the other three are a good deal limited in their order, yet these are hardly at all confined, but may be placed in all most any way that one inclines.

The only remaining terms are the conjunctive and the adjunctive. The conjunctive is that which connects the different terms of a sentence or period together. The adjunctive again points out what particular opinion the speaker has of it, the person to whom it is adressed, and such like. {The adjunctive is that which expresses the Habit of the Speakers mind with regard to what he speaks off or the sentiment it excites, as, tis strange, alas, etc. Sir is an adjunctive which denotes your adressing yourself to a particular person; all Interjections are adjunctives.} ^b

These being the constituent parts of any sentence, it comes next to be considered in what order these | v.45 parts are to be placed in the composition of a sentence. Now ^c it is plain that must be the best order which most naturally occurrs to the mind and best expresses the sense of the speaker concerning what he speaks. But this is not the simple order in which they would be placed by one that was noaway affected with what he said, but varies according as any of the different terms is the chief or essentiall one in the sentence, as that must first occur to the mind. The most plain order we could suppose and in which ideots etc. speak, would be this. 1^st The subjective, 2^d The attributive, 3^d The objective, 4^th The Terminative, 5^thly The Circumstantiall. The conjunctive and adjunctive ^d would | v.46 probably [be at the] be either of the beginning or end, and the adjuncti<ve> in different places according to its different designs.

But this order would very ill suit many expressions, nothing lively or spirited could be said of this arrangement. The generall rule therefore is that whatever is most interesting in the sentence, on which the rests depends, should be placed first and so on thro’ the whole. {That the strong member should preceed those of less consequence is also confirmed by the observation already made of ranters, they raise the 1^st and most important part of the sentence always to a high note as they are most in earnest. ^e

Thus would a man always speak who felt no passions, but when we are affected with any thing some one or other of the Ideas will thrust ^f itself forward and we will be most eager to utter what we feel Strongest. Eloisa regrets her vain Endeavours to check her Passion and the treachery of her heart.

• In vain lost Eloisa weeps and prays
• Her heart still dictates and her hand obeys. 4

Make it

• Lost Eloisa weeps in vain and prays
• Still her heart dictates and her hand obeys,

the line tho still a pretty one has lost much of its force. In the same Manner:

His Soul proud Science never taught to stray.}

Translations which are literally done from one language to another particularly from the antient to the modern are very defective in this respect. They do not indeed stick by the naturall and grammatical order, but then they frequently <follow> one worse suited to the subject than it would be. The reason is that as the different parts might be more disjoined in them, | v.47 so when they are put into an other language where such liberty can not be taken they only breed confusion. They need a different arrangement before the same spirit can be given the sentence when in an other language. The most animated and Eloquent works whether ancient or modern, if turned into the grammaticall order would appear to be wrote by <a> dull fellow or an idiot. If therefore we find the first turn we give a sentence does not express our sentiment with suitable Life we may reasonably imagine it is owing to some defect in the arangement of the terms (that is to say if the words be proper English) and when we hit this, it is not only language but stile, not only expresses the thought but also the spirit and mind of the author.

| 48 {Hence it is that Literary translations have been from the beginning of the world and to its end will be unsufferably Languid and tedious. Any member of the Phrase may thus on certain occasion intrude into the first place, sometimes even the Conjunctive.

An example may be taken from a fine passage in Bolinbroke: There have been in our little world as well as in the Great one Ages of Gold, of Silver and Brass etc. 5

If our dissatisfaction be owing to the impropriety of our Words, that we will instantly perceive if we understand Language; but oftimes it arises from somewhat that we cannot explain and in this case we may always be sure that it is from the words not arranging themselves in the order of the Ideas.

| v.48 Ammianus Marcellinus 6 observed the great Dignity which Livy had given his Stile by his Inversions; he thought therefore that by inverting still more and more frequently he might give a greater Energy to his; but not knowing that which gave propriety to Livys he has become insufferably obscure; ex<ample> the beginning of his third Book.

This Generall axiom it is fit to have in view while, we compose, but it is not to be expected nor is it adviseable that we should adjust every Phrase by a minute examination of the order our Ideas have or ought to have.} ^g

[a]Hand B(?), replacing 2d

[b]both deleted

[1 ]‘Past tense’ and ‘past participle’ clearly need to be added here; and of course the archaic third person singular –eth has not lost its e but been superseded by –s.

[c]last six words inserted by Hand B in blank left

[d]Hand B

[e]soon deleted

[f]blank of six letters in MS

[g]last two words replace words in which; fronounciation changed to fronnunciation; sentences is likewise is repeated

[h]e of pronounced deleted

[i](which all foreigners observe often) deleted

[j]for deleted

[k]Some authors replaces The sound

[l]inserted by Hand B in blank left

[m]changed from words

[n]This paragraph in Hand B

[2 ]Réflexions critiques sur la poésie et sur la peinture (1719) by the Abbé (Jean Baptiste) Du Bos (1670–1742), one of the most influential works in eighteenth–century aesthetics, appeared in an English translation by Thomas Nugent as Critical Reflections on Poetry, Painting, and Music (1748).

[3 ]Lack of an adequate phonetic notation defeats Smith’s attempt to describe the vowel system of English, especially the short (non–diphthongal) i and u; and the scribe has probably failed to understand. In the case of u it is not clear which ‘other language’ could possibly be intended—or alternatively which variety of English and which words are the basis. For i it looks as if an approximate equivalent is desperately being sought in the ‘obscure’ vowel e as in French je, ne, etc. ‘Intelligible’ was an unlucky example to use, since at least its first e is irrelevant to the statement: unless it simply exemplifies i.

[o]mourn etc in Hand B

[p]Hand B

[q]lead in Hand B at end of a line

[r]replaces may

[s]last letters blotted through overwriting: ? each

[t]Hand B

[u]added in margin before Two

[v]added by Hand B in blank left

[w]added by Hand B on opposite page, replacing deleted adjective

[x]should be objective

[y]cancelled in MS, and not replaced

[z]Hand B

[a]other deleted

[b]Hand B

[c]written over and

[d]attributive, objective (replacing adjunctive), and adjunctive, added by Hand B

[e]The sentence That . . . in earnest is squeezed by Hand A into space left at top of 47 above Hand B’s note Thus would . . . to stray, which begins opposite But this order would . . .

[f]MS thurst

[4 ]Eloisa to Abelard, 15–16.—‘His Soul . . .’: Essay on Man, i.101.

[5 ]Henry St John, Viscount Bolingbroke (1678–1751): the Hesiodic cliché ascribed here to him (but untraced) does not sum up his view of history. ‘You poets have given beautiful descriptions of a golden age, with which you suppose that the world began. Some venerable fathers of the church have given much the same descriptions of another golden age, with which they suppose that it is to end, and which will make some amends for the short duration of the paradisaical state, since the latter is to continue a thousand years’. (‘Fragments or minutes of Essays’ x.§4: Works, 1754, v.107). What he really sees is: ‘a sort of genealogy of law, in which nature begets natural law, natural law sociability, sociability union of societies by consent, and this union by consent the obligation of civil laws’ (80).

[6 ]The model imitated by the Latin–writing Greek historian Ammianus Marcellinus (adc.330–395) was rather Tacitus, whose histories he continued from 96 to 378, his extant books xiv–xxxi covering 353–378. The reference is to his close attention to prose rhythm, especially his habit of ending sentences with metrical clausulae and exploiting variations of the cursus.

[g]48 and v.48, the last two pages of quire 12, are in Hand B